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Tt ot the asserter ; as, jonn was seen w go name. 

An asserter in that mode, following, without an objective word inter- 
ning, the asserter dare, must be used without to : but otherwise it has 
prefixed. One in that mode, which follows let, [in the sense of per- 
il or alloto,] never has the to prefixed ; as, I let John take the book. 
he old theorists' rule concerning these words, has more exceptions 
an applications ! ! ! 






THE GRAMMAR 



OF 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



BY OL1VEH M. PEIECE. 



hf 



NE W-YOR Ki 



ROBINSON & FRANKLIN, 

(Successors to Leavitt, Lord, & Co.) 

AND SOLD 3Y THE BOOKSELLERS GENERALLY THROUGHOUT THE 
UNITED STATES. 

1839. 



GRAMMATICAL CHART, OR ANALYTICAL GRAMMAR IN MINIATURE. 








































I 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1839, by 
OLIVER B. PEIRCE, 

In the Office of the Clerk of the District Court of the Northern 
District of New-York. 



Entered also according to Act of Parliament, in Stationers' Hall, 
London. 



H 






INSCRIPTION. 



To you, Fellow Citizens of the United States, of 
every rank and condition in life, who spurn not the idea of 
improvement; who do not discard truths, merely because 
newly discovered, for ancient errors, because " sanctioned 
by long-established usage ;" whose ears are not closed to 
the maxims and dictates of reason and expediency ; who 
condemn not without a hearing ; who are neither incor- 
rigibly wise, nor hopelessly ignorant ; (those who are thus 
" joined to their J-dols" I leave to their fate,) this treatise 
is respectfully inscribed. 

May it prove a useful, though humble instrument, in 
lighting the torch of the mind ; by exciting a relish for 
mental exercises and manly pursuits, for accumulating, ar- 
ranging, and imparting, from the ever-varied stores of wis- 
dom and goodness, means to promote the well-being of 
society and the world : till, by a universal diffusion of the 
spirit of enterprise, intelligence, and moral purity ; the 
concentration and advancement of intellectual, moral, and 
physical force ; our happy republic shall become indisso- 
luble IN UNION, INVULNERABLE IN MIGHT, and TRANS- 
CENDENT IN THE RADIANCE OF HER GLORY : till, by the 

dissemination of liberal and enlightened views of civil, re- 
ligious, and national policy, she shall stand forth, a per- 
fect model of human government, the joy, the admira- 
tion, and wonder of the WORLD : to which, if this frail 
production shall, in the least, contribute, it will abundantly 
repay the labors of 

THE AUTHOR. 



PREFACE 



The capacity for thinking systematically and correctly ; for reasoning 
with logical coherence ; for speaking and writing with readiness and per- 
spicuity ; and, at the same time, with elegance and force ; may justly 
be ranked among the greatest attainments of life. 

This will appear obvious to all who shall consider the great means 
which have been devised, and brought to bear upon the engines of human 
improvement, and shall reflect, that those means owe their origin, the 
force of their combination, and will, ultimately, owe their success, to the 
united influence of close mental research, and the powers of communi- 
cation. Neither that research, nor those powers, can, alone, accomplish 
any great design. They must be united. The former without the lat- 
ter, is power inert, from want of means : the latter without the former, 
is means rendered useless by the want of force to wield them. 

Those writers, therefore, who, while they aid the learner, in the de- 
velopement and discipline of his mental powers, shall assist him also, in 
acquiring the means for a full, free, and forcible display of his ideas, will 
attain the summit of rational ambition ; as they will thus, more than 
they can in any gther way, prepare the student to act his part in life 
with promptness and effect. 

Language, of all instruments, is the most powerful. It is ° The Great 
Lever of human life" — for, whether in science or business, municipal or 
moral law, politics or religion, man may wish to engage ; language is 
the efficient auxiliary, by whose assistance, alone, he makes his power 
felt. From two grand properties of our nature, (thought, and the power 
of communication,) arise all the improvements and enjoyments of which 
our state is susceptible. 

"Man, but for that, no action could attend 
And but for this, be thoughtful to no end." 

Hence the importance of language ; that, while giving vent to the 
thoughts, materially subserves the purpose of their expansion. Hence, 
too, the utility of Grammar, which, while it acts the part of a regulator 
to language, extends its corrective influence to the thoughts themselves ; 
inasmuch as he who learns to speak and write correctly, learns also, at 
the same time, to think correctly. 

The importance of English Grammar being considered, we are not 
surprised at witnessing the late unprecedented increase of books on that 
science. It is, however, a matter of surprise, that such a host of different 
writers, on that subject, should be seen, traversing the country from one 
extremity to the other ; all claiming the honor and reward of having 
made new and important discoveries in the science ; while their respec- 
tive systems differ in nothing else, half so much, as in their title pages 

1* 



6 PREFACE. 

and binding ; and are, generally, compared with Murray's, (absurd as I 
think his treatise,) in which they seem to have originated, and around 
which they seem to revolve, like the different planets of the solar sys- 
tem, compared with the sun itself. That some have improved Murray's 
Grammar, (which is only a condensed compilation of the works of other 
writers, with their beauties and defects ;) none will deny : that more, in 
attempting to improve, have only mangled it, is equally certain ; that 
none of them has yet given to the public an English Grammar — a trea- 
tise, adapted- at the same time to the idiom and structure of the English 
language, and to the capacity of learners — is obvious to every person of 
a discriminating mind, who has examined the almost innumerable pro- 
ductions, on that science, which have been imposed on the public ; with 
scarcely any effect besides an increased expenditure for books, an inter- 
ruption in the regular course of studies, by changes of systems, seldom 
for the better, not unfrequently for the worse, leaving pupils, after all 
their perplexity of change and choice, stationary or advancing, according 
to their own temperament of mind, or the qualifications of their respec- 
tive teachers. 

The chief merit (and an unenviable one it is) of this whole array of 
authors, with Murray at their head, as Master Commandant , and Kirk- 
ham, G. Brown, and Smith, his Coadjutors, consists, not in illustrating 
and embellishing truth, as truth, but in attempting, with the appearance 
of candor, and under color of philosophic investigation, to deck, in the 
garb of truth, " sanctioned by long- established usage" what they know, 
(and in their notes, by good arguments prove) to be, in Grammar, the 
very reverse of scientific truth, and logical, philosophical consistency ; 
the crude disjointed theories of ancient writers ; positions, untenable, 
not only from being averse to each other, but also from being at open 
variance with the principles of plain reason and common sense ; and 
whose universal tendency is, to bewilder and discourage, not to en- 
lighten and cheer, the learner, at his setting-out in the career of literary 
attainment. To sustain this, I appeal to the experience and observa- 
tion of every school teacher, not merely school master, and ask, ' Of those 
who have commenced the study of Grammar, how many thousands, after 
having raw-spent months, perhaps years, in fruitless, irksome study, and 
consequent wretchedness, have abandoned it with disgust ; and of the 
innumerable multitudes that have endured the drudgery of the pursuit, 
year after year, from the age, perhaps, of ten or twelve, to sixteen or 
twenty, have, on leaving school, and laying aside their books, discarded 
all thoughts of Grammar, not practising, (and how could they 1) one jot 
or tittle of that which they had committed to memory, but never under- 
stood. Thus have hundreds of thousands of years been annually wasted, 
and worse than wasted, because, when thus applied, productive of much 
real misery ; besides effecting, in pupils, an enervating, withering dis- 
trust of their own abilities : a complete mental stupefaction ; a paralysis 
of the mind. All this is the result of defective and erroneous systems 
of Grammar, and consequent want of well-qualified teachers. 

Such a state of things ought not to exist, nor would it, if men would 
judge of authors and their productions as of other things, not according 
to what they profess to be, but what they are. If English Grammar 
really is, what it should be, a common sense, practical science, it should 



PREFACE. 7 

be treated of accordingly. It would then no longer be considered almost 
exclusively the appendage of the library or head of the learned philoso- 
phist ; but, like the manna in the wilderness, would be attainable by all, 
and of incalculable value to all who should attain it. 

Law, in a free country, is, professedly, the representation of the peo- 
ple's will, regulated by the principles of reason, and designed to correct, 
by established rule, the occasional aberrations of individuals and multi- 
tudes. Grammar, too, consists of the representation of the principles of 
communication, as adopted by the learned of a community or country, 
yet digested according to rational principles, and applied by rule ; that, 
by restraining the irregularities of genius ; directing the style of the 
well-informed ; and refining, to expulsion, the awkwardness of the vul- 
gar ; it may produce, as nearly as possible, uniformity and perspicuity, in 
the expression of ideas, or the transmission of thought. 

While all writers on English Grammar have the same end in view, 
they forget, or neglect, the only means for accomplishing that end. In- 
stead of allowing the English language an idiom peculiar to itself, to 
exert a constitution- like, controlling influence, they attempt to subject 
the words of our language to rules governing others ; even in things in 
which ours is dissimilar. That the words of ours, are derived from al- 
most every other written language, is admitted. That our population is 
composed of emigrants and their descendants from various other nations, 
is also true ; and we might, with as much propriety, ordain that foreign- 
ers should cbey the laws of those countries from which they respectively 
came, as that words, derived from other languages, but imbodied into 
our own, should be controlled by rules governing those languages in 
which they originated. Instead of founding their respective systems on 
the immutable principles of common sense, and rendering the " Science 
of Language" subservient to those principles, these authors have ex- 
pended more labor, to dress it in the party-colored garb of sophistry, 
and make it appear, and be thought, what they have imagined it, but 
what it is not, than would have been requisite to make understood and 
k?iown, what it is. English Grammar, theorized in this manner, must, 
like the material universe, bear the impress of ceaseless mutation : 
while common sense, the only sure basis of any theory, has been, and 
will for ever be, the same — unchanged — unchanging — unchangeable, 
amid the general confusion of matter, and the wreck of the universe. 

On this imperishable foundation — this rock of eternal endurance — I 
rear my superstructure, the edifice of scientific truth, the temple of Gram- 
matical consistency. If the materials shall prove to be but u hay, wood, 
and stubble" let floods of light sweep the base fabric away ; let the fire of 
truth and reason consume it ; and I, in the citizen, forgetting the indi- 
vidual, shall be the first to rejoice in the destruction of the work of my 
own hands : and especially, if some skilful architect shall erect in its 
place, an edifice, more stately, better proportioned, and of greater dura- 
bility. If when tested by experiment, they shall be found " gold, silver, 
and precious stone" cemented by that quality which the wisest of men 
has pronounced " of more value than rubies" let it remain ; a beacon, to 
guide my countrymen in the pursuit of that first of sciences, the " Sci- 
ence of Language ;" a monument of my humble endeavors to subserve 
the interests of my country and mankind. 



8 PREFACE. 

The design of the following work, is, to reduce to the level of a plain 
understanding, the principles of the English Language, and thus, by 
increasing, and placing within the reach of every person, facilities for 
becoming acquainted with those principles, to render a practical know- 
ledge of our vernacular tongue, common to all classes of people. How- 
far the author has been successful in his endeavor to remove the ob- 
structions, so long superabundant in this path of science ; to unfold to 
the view of multitudes, what has heretofore, too long, been considered 
dark and intricate, and attainable but by few ; to bring to light the latent 
beauties of the English language ; to make English Grammar, a com- 
mon sense, practical, every -day science ; is left to the candor and discri- 
mination of a generous and enlightened community. An investigation 
of the merits or demerits of his theory, he demands as public justice ; not 
solicits as a personal favor. If it is an improvement of great utility, it 
should be known, and patronized, for the public good. If it is not, it 
should be known, and put down, as a public nuisance ;* that neither the 
work nor its author, may any longer impose, with impunity, on the cre- 
dulity of the people. 

If he has succeeded in accomplishing the end proposed ; in making 
the crooked paths straight, and the rough ways smooth ; if he shall enable 
the student to become equally learned and useful, with less expense ; or 
more learned and useful, with equal expense ; if he shall, in effect, add 
something to man's brief existence, by shortening the time necessarily 
spent in preparing him to act his part in life with credit to himself, and 
usefulness to the world ; then, although, amid the coming revolutions 
of successive improvement, the name of the author and his work may 
hereafter perish from the memory of man ; yet, from the consciousness 
that his efforts, for the advancement of the general good, have not been 
wholly vain, he will have had, while living, the satisfaction of seeing his 
highest designs consummated. 

0. B. PEIRCE. 

Rome, N. Y. December 29th, 1838. 

* Whatever imposes the burden of innovation without the advantage of 
improvement, may, with justice, be termed a nuisance. 



INTRODUCTION. 



For a vindication of the new nomenclature, adopted in this treatise ; 
for an exhibition of the philosophical, principles of the work, as con- 
trasted with the absurdities, errors, and defects, (logically exposed) of 
the old theories written by Murray, Kirkham, G. Brown, Smith, and 
others, and published, as " Grammars of the Language" while they are 
Grammars only in name ; the reader is referred to the Appendix. 

Although, to the student of mature mind, the conversational plan of 
the following treatise, is not necessary ; yet, as it cannot impede his pro- 
gress ; and may render more lively and interested, the younger pupil, 
who, with others, may, in a class, use this treatise as a reading book, for 
which it is designed, it is hoped that the plan will not be objected to. 
Although it is often said, that " it is now quite too late in the age of the 
world, to think of offering anything new on a subject as old as the Eng- 
lish Language ; yet, repudiating this sentiment to the full extent of it, 
I have only to ask the candid reader to examine this work ; and, when 
he shall have done it, to ask him, whether or not, he has, in the nine- 
teenth century, found something new, even in the " Science of the Lan- 
guage ;" and also whether or not he has found in a theory Radically 
New, a Grammar of the English Language ; something which I believe 
I have shown, in the Appendix, has never before been found. 

In surveying a route, new and direct, through the fields of philoso- 
phical truth, to the site of the Temple of Grammatical Science, and car- 
rying with me the materials, gathered on the way, for its construction, I 
may have crossed the blind and ever devious path of some precedent wri- 
ter ; but he who shall follow me through, will see, that, with my goal 
constantly in view, I have proceeded directly to it, not turning to the 
right or left, for the purpose of intersecting or avoiding another's path. 

He who would be sure to give a correct map of a city, should not sit 
down and copy from other maps, that may, and may not, have been cor- 
rect in their day, but certainly cannot be now ; but he should survey, in 
person, every foot of ground, and draw his map to represent it. 

This has been my course. I have surveyed the Language, and drawn 
my theory from it ; writing that theory as though I had never seen a 
book, entitled an English Grammar : and, should a person doubt the 
correctness of any principle of the theory ; I shall refer him, not to some 
other treatise, for settling the dispute, but to the principle of the language 
to which the point in dispute relates, or which it professes to represent ; 
just as he whose geography or map is disputed, would lead the disputant 
to the point of land which the distrusted part of his map or book pro- 
fesses to describe. 

The whole of this work's claim to singularity, as the first and only 



10 INTRODUCTION. 

Grammar of the English Language, rests on two points, which may 
easily be determined. If the other theories do represent the English 
Language, and afford rules, philosophically sustained, for determining 
what is correct, what is incorrect ; and for correcting any thing in style or 
diction which is wrong ; then, though this should be found & grammar of 
the Language, it would not be the first and only one; for they, it would 
appear, had been grammars before it : though this might still be better 
than they, from its being better adapted to the capacity of the human 
mind. If the old works do not represent the language, as it is, and do 
not afford rules for determining what is wrong and for correcting it ; 
then, of course, if this is a grammar of the language, it is the first and 
the only one. 

Fellow-citizens, will you examine, discriminate, judge, and act ? 

There are two Grand Principles on which this work is based. The 
first is, that every sentence should be spoken or written as it should be 
parsed ; and, when a sentence has been spoken or written correctly, it 
should be parsed as it stands : for parsing is describing the words of a 
sentence as they are used, not as they or some others might have been. 
The second is, that every term of distinction, used in a theory of this 
kind, should be a philosophical representative of the principle for whose 
distinction it is used. Without these grand points, no work, whatever 
may be its pretensions, can be a Grammar of the Language. 

If, with public utility as my leading incentive ; if, with the light of 
science as my only guide ; and with philosophy as my only means, 
I have succeeded in my essay, I hope to be useful to my fellow-citi- 
zens, by accelerating their proficiency in the science of language, the 
first and most effective auxiliary of every other science ; and to receive 
from them the more substantial tokens of their approbation, a liberal 
patronage and support. If I have failed, may my work sink innoxious 
to the depths of oblivion ; rather than remain, like too many others, to 
burden, not to sustain, the rising greatness of the mental and moral con- 
stitution of man. 



ADDRESS TO TEACHERS. 



Consider the persons under your care as rational creatures, endowed, 
by their Creator, with intellectual faculties which are capable of being 
raised, by proper exercise, to indefinite expansion and power ; but 
which, if forced to admit as truths, the unexamined dogmas of schools ; 
will dwindle to the insignificance of mere brutal instinct ; the imitative 
propensity of the parrot or the ape. 

Remember that active belief, grounded in conviction from personal 
investigation, can alone benefit and improve mankind ; that the princi- 
ples of any theory, on any subject, blindly assented to, can never be last- 
ing in their effect ; but like the mist of morning, may be noticed at the 
moment ; yet pass and are forgotten. Like trees planted on dust-covered 
rocks, they may spring up, and, for a while, may seem to flourish ; but 
they very soon wither and die ; while by a course the reverse of this — by 
exciting the spirit of inquiry, principles investigated are made, by pupils, to 
become their own ; and are like trees planted in rich alluvial soil, which 
strike deep their roots ; flourish in greatness and wild luxuriance ; and 
by their fragrance, their beauty, and their fruit, impart gladness, trans- 
port, and felicity to all around. 

Therefore, 

Never allow your pupils to commit to memory what they do not 
understand. Explain to them, fully, the parts which demand explana- 
tion ; and impress on their minds the fact, that their proficiency and en- 
joyment (yes ! enjoyment in studying grammar !) in every succeeding 
part, will depend wholly on their having acquired a thorough knowledge 
of all that precedes it. Teach them that theories which are not philo- 
sophical and practical, are downright insult to the human mind, and 
should be at once discarded. 

Teach them that Grammar is but the geography of the language ; that 
parsing is only describing the nature and relations of words as they are 
used, not as they or some others might have been : that any system of pre- 
tended grammar, (by whomsoever it may be written,) which does not fix 
the standard of correctness in language, and afford the means for de- 
termining what is incorrect, by showing why it is so ; which does not 
represent the language as it is, setting the seal of grammatic approval, to 
what is right, and condemning with reason, what is wrong, is just no 
grammar at all : that though men, as men, may be esteemed for good 
intentions ; as authors, they claim respect only for " thinking aright and 
meaning well;" that books, as guides, are to be valued, not for what their 
authors have wished to be, but for what they are. 

Lead your pupils, step by step, from examining the different materials 
of whica the fabric of the language is composed, to examining the mode 



12 ADDRESS TO TEACHERS. 

of arranging and combining the parts to form a just, proportioned? 
and harmonious structure of the whole. By this means, they will be- 
come learned, in fact, in the science of the language. By these means 
they will acquire confidence in their own powers, and learn how to use 
them. By these means you will render their minds like a capacious 
storehouse of well-assorted practical, and (of course) useful science, that 
can be applied at will ; and drive for ever from your schools the listless 
inattentive spirit which is so great an obstacle in the way of mental 
advancement : but, by a contrary course, by having pupils commit to 
memory what they do not understand, you would benumb their facul- 
ties, destroy all relish for school and scholastic pursuit, and make your 

Pupils become, by tasks, in schools, 
Mere book-worms, prating parrots — fools ! 

You would defeat the very design of their attendance at school, and ren- 
der their minds like a depository where all things are thrown together 
in one shapeless, heterogeneous mass ; where, though you are sure every 
thing is deposited, yet nothing can be of any service ; because, when 
thus encumbered, it cannot be approached or applied. 

By the former course you will open for them a pleasant way, strewed 
with flowers of invitation, and fruits of nourishment and delight ; to ex- 
cite activity, to impart health and vigor, and make them forget the toil 
of the ascent. By the latter you would plant a continuous hedge of 
thorns in the pathway of unshielded learners, who are at first unable 
duly to appreciate the gem of literature ; and who instead of being in- 
vigorated on the way, and fired by prospect, to ascend the hill of science, 
and light up, by present usefulness, the glories of a future age will be 
made to imagine the cost of the attainment greater than the value of the 
prize ; " to bury their talents in the earthy" and turn back to the gloomy 
regions of nature's twilight, to grovel in vulgar pursuits, perhaps crimi- 
nal indulgences, and plod their dreary course through all the journey of 
life. 

Although it may seem out of my province, to advise in things not per- 
taining to grammar; still, I would express my wish that, in whatever 
study learners may be engaged, teachers, into whose hands this volume 
shall fall, would, for their own sake, the present and future advantage of 
their pupils, and for the good of community, Carry out the principles 
above referred to ; by informing and exercising the understanding, in- 
stead of applying too exclusively to the memory of the learner. By this 
mode of instruction they will unbar the gates of Science, and usher their 
disciples into the innermost temple, where they may " perform a lustra- 
tion for themselves and the people." By a contrary course they will 
" withhold the key of knowledge, not entering themselves, and those 
that would enter, they will hinder." Let them consider thai fifteen mi- 
nutes per day, spent in exercising the understandings is worth more than 
the whole time, wasted in the exercise of memory, without the aid of tha 
understanding and judgment. 



REMARKS TO THE LEARNER. 



If you would advance rapidly and pleasantly in your grammatical ca* 
reer, be sure to understand every part of the theory at which you shall 
arrive, before leaving that for another. Read w«th care each principle, 
as described in the body of the work ,' and then turn to the Appendix, 
where you will find it more fully explained and illustrated ; as well as 
exhibited in contrast with other principles. 

Although you may be required to commit to memory the definitions 
in the chart, and the rules in the book, after you shall have read and un- 
derstood them ; yet, you should be more solicitous to make the principles 
of the science than to make the language of the hook, your own. 

Spurn the idea of quoting, as proof, or in the place of it, the mere au- 
thority of names. [This practice, though very common, is but the blind 
offspring of a depraved and indolent sire, who would extinguish' the light 
of his child, that he may the more easily conceal his own defects, which 
he might, and should remedy.] - Remember that authors are but men, 
and that though there are many learned and thinking men who are not 
authors ; yet the history of human life in all past time has shown, that 
there are many authors, who are neither closely thinking men, nor 
learned in the subjects of which they treat. 

Therefore never quote, as your defence, the authority of any man : 
and do not rest satisfied with your researches, or think your object half 
attained, till, by investigation, you shall have rendered yourself familiar 
with the whole, and become able to defend, logically and philosophically, 
what you admit as fact, and are willing to call your own. 

Thus you will find your mental vigor increased ; your powers of dis- 
crimination rendered more acute; and your confidence in yourself ad- 
vancing at every step. You will be able to remove every barrier that 
may be interposed to prevent your onward course ; to rest on your own 
resources, and in your own dignity, secure from injury by the assaults 
of the weak and giddy, who will not endure what they call the drudgery 
of philosophic investigation ; and whose pretended knowledge is only con- 
jecture or blind assent : who are always flaunting in borrowed plumes ; 
and, having no mind as their own, are, at best, but the unstable, unen- 
during mist of popular effervescence — but leaves, borne involuntarily 
along the current, the fickle and errant multitude. 



THE GRAMMAR 



OF 



THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



Utility alone can stamp the worth 
Of theories or actions, men or things. 



CHAPTER I. 

LANGUAGE. 

What is Language 1 

It is the means of communicating thoughts from one to 
another. 

Of how many primary kinds is language ? 

It is of two kinds ; natural or spoken, and artificial or 
written. 

Note 1. The different incorporations of words, or they and their re- 
presentative signs, used by the people of different nations, for the ex- 
pression of ideas, are also called languages *; and generally bear, respee- 
tively, the names of the countries in which they were originally imbo- 
died, or to which they are peculiar : as the English, the French, the 
Greek language. 

Of what does natural language consist ? 

It consists of sounds expressing emotion, or rendered 
significant by usage, by the use of which ideas can be so 
expressed as to be understood. 

Of what does artificial language consist ? 

It consists of letters or characters that are signs of sig- 
nificant sounds, by the arrangement of which, in a certain 
order, ideas can be expressed in such a manner as to be 
understood. 

Examples. By speaking the word pen, the idea of that 
instrument is conveyed from the speaker of the word to 
the hearer of it. This is natural language. So also by 



16 GRAMMAR. 

writing the letters, p, e, n, or by exhibiting a picture of 
that instrument, the idea of a pen is communicated to the 
reader of the letters, or to the one beholding its painted re- 
semblance. This is artificial language. 

Note 2. Natural language is, to a limited extent, (the representa- 
tion of the passions,) common to brutes as well as man ; but artificial 
language, being the work of invention, is peculiar to man ; the power 
to produce which, being one, among many others, of the superior advan- 
tages with which a beneficent Creator has endowed man, above the brute 
creation. It is also one of the most distinguished advantages which 
civilized nations enjoy above those in a savage state ; the inhabitants of 
the former, being able, by the facilities which artificial language afford 
them, to converse, almost without inconvenience, with friends who are 
absent in other parts of the world ; and, through books and other publi- 
cations, to address and inform, and by information, to advance in pros- 
perity and happiness, many thousands at the same time. 

GRAMMAR. 

What is Grammar? 

It is the science of language. 

Of how many kinds is grammar? 

It is of two kinds ; universal and particular. 

Of what does universal grammar consist? 

It consists of an exposition of the general principles of 
communication, by natural or artificial means, which are 
common to the languages of all nations. 

Of what does particular grammar consist? 

It consists of an explanation of the general" principles of 
communication, according to the manner in which they 
should be applied to a particular language ; being adapted 
to the structure and idiom of that language. 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Of what does English Grammar consist? 

It consists of an exposition of the principles ofthe Eng- 
lish language, and directions for speaking and writing it 
correctly^ 

What does it teach ? 

It teaches how to express ideas, by that language, with 
clearness, fulness, precision, and elegance. 

Into how many parts is it divided ? 

It is divided into five part? ; Orthography, Etymology, 
Syntax, Prosody? and Rhetoric, 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 17 



CHAPTER II. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 
Of what does Orthography treat ? 

It treats of the nature and use of letters, and the manner 
of combining them to form syllables and words. 

LETTERS. 

What are Letters ? 

They are marks or signs of significant sounds, being the 
first principles and least component parts of a written lan- 
guage. 

SYLLABLES. 

What is a Syllable ? 

It is a sound spoken by one effort of the voice, or a let- 
ter, or combination of letters, i-epresenting that sound ; as, 
a, an, apt. 

WORDS. 

What is a Word ? 

It is a sound or combination of sounds, or its represen- 
tative characters, referring to, or standing for, some idea ; 
as, an apple, truth, harmony, the world. 

Note 3. As orthography is treated of at large, in most books con- 
taining the rudiments of the language, I only notice, with brevity, some 
of the more prominent parts ; supposing the learner to have acquitted 
himself well in orthography, before commencing the study of grammar 
in a detached work. 

Of how many letters is the English alphabet composed ? 

It is composed of twenty-six ; some of which, for want 
of others, have several different sounds ; and some of 
which are united to form one sound. 

Of how many kinds are letters ? 

They are of two kinds ; vowels and consonants. 

What is a Vowel ? 

It is a letter which has a perfect, simple, and independent 
sound, and may of itself constitute an entire syllable, or be 
joined to other letters to constitute with them one sylla- 
ble ; as, a, e, o, A-me-lia, Sol-o-mon, a-e-ii-al. 

What is a Consonant 1 

It is a letter that is always used in connexion with a 

2 # 



18 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

vowel with which it is sounded, and cannot, in a word, he 
used independently of a vowel ; as, d, I, n> day-Zight, noon. 

Which letters are vowels? 

A, e, and o, are always vowels; J, is a vowel except 
when immediately followed by a vowel ; in which case it 
is a consonant; as in min-ion. EJ, is a vowel except when 
sounded like yu ; in which case it acts the parts of a con- 
sonant and a vowel ; as in wnion, l/nadilla. Y, is a vowel 
except when it begins a syllable, and is immediately fol- 
lowed by a vowel ; in which case it is a consonant ; as in 
youth, yearly. W, is never (as some writers pretend) a 
vowel ; but is a simple consonant ; as in worth, willing. 
It may, like other letters of the same class, be joined to 
another consonant, to produce, with that, a compound 
consonant sound ; as in d-well, s-winging. All other let- 
ters are consonants. 

What is a Diphthong ? 

It is the union of two vowels in one syllable ; as, ea in 
beat ; qu in ounce. 

What is a Triphthong? 

It is the union of three vowels in one syllable ; as, eau 
in beau ; u u in adzes*. 

Note 4. Although three vowels are, in triphthongs, united in one syl- 
lable ; yet it is more a useless combination of letters than a union of 
abounds ; for, at most, only two vowels can be sounded : and, indeed, the 
sound of the word would scarcely be noticed as different, though one 
vowel only should be used. The word adieu, as pronounced by the Eng- 
J|sh ? would be better expressed by the letters a, d, u. 

SPELLING. 

What is Spelling ? 

It is combining letters to form syllables and words. 

Which is the most rational mode of spelling? 

It is choosing such letters to compose words, as will 
guide the learner, by the sounds of the letters, to the right 
pronunciation of the words. 

Note 5. It is much to be regretted that nature, reason, system, and 
expediency bear so small a part in regulating'the principles of our or- 
thography ; and that art, guess-work, irregularity, and tn-uti\'ity are the 
order of the day. The formation of words from letters either mute or 
dissonant in sound, with the words which they^axe forced to represent, 
requires of pupils, to learn and imprint on their memories almost every 
word in the language, before they can be good spellers. Whereas, if 
words were formed on a natural and rational plan, " the wayfaring man. 



ORTHOGRAPHY, 19 

though a fool," could hardly err in spelling. Then, instead of forming 
the combinations j9, h> J, h, ?', s, i, c, — c, 0, Z, 0, n, e, Z, — c, 0, r, j9, 5-, — A, e, r, 
— J, w, r, 1/, — 0, e, a, w, a:, — e, n, n, u, 2, (pronounced tiz-zik, kur-nel, kore, 
hur, ber-re, boze, and aun-we) the more rational combinations, expressing 
the pronunciation of those words, would be adopted ; and any person, 
however untaught, (if he had knowledge sufficient to enable him to spell 
the simplest word in the language,) could not fail to spell those simple 
words, now represented by such awkward combinations of letters. So, 
also, would it be with all other words of the same class. 

May some literary Hercules yet arise, who shall wield against the pre- 
judice of mortals the influence of reason, with the force of Omnipo- 
tence ; and, even in our own so variously complex language, dictate the 
formation of words according to rational principles ; and thus effectually 
demolish the strongest barrier between the natural born ignorance of 
man, and his acquired knowledge. Then, instead of several years* 
study, now requisite to constitute a good orthographer, a few months 
only, spent in studying the principles of orthography, would be suffi- 
cient. According to the author's views of the subject, from whatever 
various sources the words of our language may be derived, they should, 
toxonstitute the English language, be so remodelled as to comport with 
the idiom and genius of that language ; leaving tcrthe critically curious, 
the toil or pleasure of finding the originals, not by the assimHarity of the 
letters, but of the sounds of the words. 

How are words named with respect to the number of 
syllables of which they are composed? 

A~word of one syllable, is called a monosyllable ; a word 
of two syllables, is called a dissyllable : a word of three 
syllables, is called a trisyllable : a word of four or more 
syllables, is called a polysyllable : [a word of many sylla- 
bles.] 

Of how many kinds are words ? 

They are of three kinds ; primitive, derivative, and com- 
pound. 

What is a primitive word? 

It is one which stands for, or refers to some idea, but 
which cannot ,be divided without being destroyed ; as ? 
peril, speak, good. 

What is a derivative word? 

It is one which is formed by adding one syllable or more 
to the primitive ; as, peril-ous, speak-er, good-ness. 

What is a compound word? 

It is one which is formed by uniting two or more entire 
words ; as, peace-maker, law-giver, 



20 ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER III. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Of what does Etymology treat? 

It treats of the classification of words, their changes and 
derivations. 

Into how many classes are the words of the English lan- 
guage divided 1 

They are divided into ten classes, called parts of speech ; 
Names, Substitutes, Asserters, Adnames, Modifiers, Rela- 
tives, Connectives, Interrogatives, Repliers, and Exclama- 
tions. 

What is a Name 1 

It is a term used for distinguishing an object or idea 
that may be considered separately or alone ; as, Earth, 
Water, Truth, God, Creator, King. 

What is a Substitute ? 

It is a word substituted for a name, phrase, or sentence ; 
as, John was my enemy, but he is now my friend ; I re- 
lieved him in his distress, which excited his gratitude and 
affection. 

What is an Asserter ? 

It is the part of speech which asserts ; or which can be 
so used, with only a name or substitute, as to constitute, 
with that, an assertion concerning the person or thing de- 
noted by it ; as, John walks. Maria reads. I live and 
write. Seth eats fruit. [It may express its idea in so ab- 
stract or so indefinite a manner as not to require a particu- 
lar word to denote a person or thing as the subject of re- 
ference or remark ; as, Let a man's estate be what it may, 
he is poor if he does not live within his income.] 

" Hark ! A glad voice the lonely desert cheers : 
Prepare the way ! A God, a God appears !" 

How are asserters distinguished with respect to their 
relation to names or substitutes, and the objects which they 
represent ? 

They are distinguished as Intransitive, Transitive, and 
Receptive. 

What does the Intransitive asserter represent ? 

It represents the person or thing that is the subject of 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 21 

remark as merely existing ; or as acting without affecting 
any other object ; as, Time is* Seth lives. John walks. 

What does the Transitive denote ? 

It denotes an action or influence, of the subject of re- 
mark < which extends to, and effects, some object (either 
really or imaginarily) so as to change its condition, or re- 
present it in a new relation; as, God created the world. 
Henry worships his Creator. Cain Mlled Abel. 

What does the Receptive represent? 

It represents the subject of remark as receiving an ac-> 
tion or influence which is extended to it, and by which it 
is changed in its condition, or represented in a new rela- 
tion ; as, The world was created. The Creator is wor- 
shipped. Abel was killed. [It necessarily implies an 
operative cause to exert the influence, or effect the change.] 

What is an Ad name ? 

It is a word added to a name or its substitute, to show 
the quality, class, or condition of the object which the name 
or substitute denotes ; or, without referring to its exist- 
ence or action, how it is to be regarded, whether gene- 
rally or particularly, or with respect to the number of the 
objects referred to ; as, A good man. Sweet apples. Any 
man can do this work in two days. 

What is a Modifier ? 

It is a part of speech used to modify the entire sentence 
or clause of a sentence in which it occurs ; as, William 
ran swiftly with Henry through your village at eight, 
o'clock this morning. John recited his grammar lesson 
well yesterday morning. 

What is a Relative ? 

It is a part of speech used to show the relation of an 
event or fact to some object, or of one object to another ; 
as, I walked with Henry through the brook ; which is near 
William's residence in the park. 

What is a Connective ? 

It is a part of speech used to connect words or sen- 
tences ; as, William and Henry went to school ; but they 
soon returned. I saw Seth or his brother at church. 

What is an Interrogative? 

It is a word which is used to interrogate, and which re- 
presents, of itself, what would otherwise be expressed by 
several words of different classes \ as, We should detest . 



22 PARSING. 

vice ; yet pity, and seek to rescue, its deluded victims. 
64 Why?" John will return from the west ; visit his friends ; 
and pay his debts. " When ?" 

What is a Replier ? 

It is a part of speech which constitutes a reply to a fore- 
going question or remark, and which represents, of itself, 
what would otherwise require a whole sentence ; as, John, 
will you go with me to Philadelphia, stay there a few days, 
and return by way of Trenton ? " No /" When will man 
cease to exist ? " Never /" 

What is an Exclamation ? 

It is a word or phrase used independently of a sentence, 
for expressing emotion ; as, Alas ! Man still tramples over 
the wretches whom he has made miserable. O hapless 
choice ! 

What is Parsing? 

It is describing the nature, use, and powers of words, 
and, when united in a sentence, their relation to, and de- 
pendence and influence on, each other. 

EXERCISES IN GENERAL PARSING. 
Example I. 
God is Creator and King. 

God is a name, as it is a term applied to that being to distinguish him 
from others. It is used to represent that being as the general subject of 
remark, and has the asserter is depending on it for sense. 

is is an asserter ; being the word used to assert or convey to the 
reader or hearer the idea of the existence of the Deity, denoted by the 
name God> on which the asserter is depends for sense. 

Creator and king are both names ; each being a term used to'dis- 
tinguish a certain character, independent of identity. They are joined 
together by the word and ; they occur after the asserter is, and refer to 
the name God, which identifies the being ; and are both by this connex- 
ion and reference applied to him, to show the twofold character in 
which he is to be regarded ; as Maker and Ruler of the Universe. 

and is a connective used to join the term King to the term Creator, 
that the former may be applied to the same being as the latter, to which 
and joins it. 

Example II. 
John was my enemy ; but he is now my friend. 
John is a name. It is a term of distinction given to the object de* 
•noted by it. It has the asserter was depending on it for sense. 



J 



PARSING. 23 

was is an asserter. It is used to convey the idea of John's past ex- 
istence, and depends for sense on the name John, which denotes the 
person whose existence, in past time, is asserted. 

my is a substitute. It is a word substituted for the name of the 
speaker or writer. It is not a name ; because it cannot be so used as to 
distinguish, of itself, or without reference to other words, one person 
from another. It is used to represent me as having, possessing, or 
having something, (an enemy.) It precedes and depends on the name 
enemy, which denotes the character of the person who sustained that 
relation to me. 

enemy is a name. It is a term of distinction given to a certain person 
to show the character in which he is represented. It comes after the 
asserter was, and by referring to the name John, on which the asserter 
depends, it applies the character, thus distinguished, to the person iden- 
tified by the name ; thereby representing the man to have been my 
enemy. 

but is a connective. It joins together the two parts constituting the 
sentence ; and, by its influence, prepares the mind for expecting a 
change in the circumstances of the narration. 

he is a substitute. It stands in the place of the name John, and de- 
rives its particular meaning only from its reference to that name. Th& 
term he cannot be regarded as a name, for it is not sufficient, of itself, to 
distinguish either an object or the character of an object. It is used to 
prevent the inelegant repetition of the name John, for which it is substi- 
tuted ; and has the asserter is depending on it for sense, in the same 
manner as the name would have had it, in case the name had been re- 
peated. 

is is an asserter ; asserting the present existence of the man John, 
who is represented by the substitute he, on which it depends for sense. 

now is a modifier. It is used here, not to express an additional idea, 
or change the meaning of what is expressed by the other words ; but to 
mark more strikingly, and render more emphatic the distinction of time 
represented by the asserter is, showing, thereby, not that John is gene- 
rally, or at other times, my friend, but that he is my friend at the present 
time — now. 

my is a substitute, being substituted for my name, not to prevent its 
repetition, but to preclude the necessity of using it at all. It is used in 
such a form as to represent me as having or possessing something. It 
precedes, refers to, and depends on, the name friend, which denotes 
what I have. 

friend is a name. It is a term cf distinction used after the asserter 
is, and referring to the substitute he, in such a manner as to denote that 
the character, thus distinguished, belongs to the man John, whom the 
word he represents, thereby showing him to be my friend. 

Example III. 

James bought a good knife, and gave that knife to me. 

James is a name ; being a term of distinction given to the man, inde- 
pendently considered. It is here used in such a manner as to represent 



24 PARSING. 

him as the general subject of remark ; and has the two asserters, bought 
and gave, referring to it and depending on it for sense. 

bought is an asserter ; being used to assert that something was done. 
It relates to, and depends on the name James ; thereby referring the act 
of buying to the man denoted by that name ; representing the man, 
James, as the purchaser. 

a is an adname ; being added, in sense and the construction of the sen- 
tence, to the name knife ; not to show the quality of the knife, but how 
the thing is to be regarded, (whether particularly or indefinitely,) repre- 
senting it as an object indifferently considered ; some knife, without par- 
ticular reference to any one. It refers to, and depends on, the name 
knife, that represents the thing to which the adname a refers. 

good is an adname ; for it is added to the name knife, to show the 
quality of the instrument. It refers to, and depends on, the name knife ; 
and by that reference and dependence, represents the quality which it 
denotes as belonging to the thing denoted by the name. 

knife is a name ; being a term by which the instrument denoted by it 
may be known and considered separately from any other object or idea. 
It is so placed in the sentence that it refers to, and depends on the as- 
serter bought, and thereby represents the instrument denoted by the 
name to be the object of the action expressed by the asserter bought, the 
thing purchased by James. 

and is a connective ; being used to connect the asserter gave, with the 
words depending on it, to the asserter bought, and the words depending 
on that ; thereby representing the two circumstances, or facts described, 
as having a common relation to the man denoted by the name James, to 
which by the connexion both asserters alike refer, and on which both 
depend for sense. 

gave is an asserter. [Let the learner tell why it is.] It is connected 
by the word and, with the preceding asserter bought, and thereby neces- 
sarily refers to, and depends on, the name James, on which that asserter 
depends. 

that is an adname ; for it is added to the name knife, not to show the 
quality of the instrument, but how it is to be regarded ; to show that the 
thing before considered indefinitely or generally, is now to be regarded 
definitely or particularly ; to show which knife is meant ; viz. that knife : 
the one before referred to ; the good knife which James had bought. 

knife is a name ; being a term of distinction given to an instrument of 
a certain class. It refers to, and depends on, the asserter gave, and 
thereby represents the instrument denoted by it as being the object 
given. 

to is a relative ; for it shows to me, as the object, the relation of the 
event of James's giving the knife. 

me is a substitute ; being used in the place of my name ; and, by its 
reference to, and dependence on, the relative to, it represents me as the 
object of relation, the person to whom the knife was transferred. 



Example IV. 
William ran swiftly through your village with Henry 



PARSING. 25 

at eight o'clock this morning. [Let the learner parse all 
the words except swiftly, and read the parsing of that.] 

swiftly is a modifier ; for it modifies the meaning of the entire sen- 
tence in which it occurs. It shows how the event, considered with re- 
spect to the action, the actor, and his company, the time and place, 
occurred. It qualifies the sense expressed by the whole sentence ; but 
not that expressed by one word, to the exclusion of any other. It is, 
then, a modifier of the words with which it stands connected ; a modifier 
of the sentence, a modifier of the language— a modifier. 

Example V. 

I could not see Robert when I called at his father's 
house day before yesterday, at two o'clock in the after- 
noon. [Let the learner parse all the words of this sentence 
except not, and read the parsing of that.] 

not is a modifier. It is used to change or modify the meaning of the 
entire sentence ; the whole of which, as it stands, is a negative sentence ; 
though, without the modifier riot, it would, in every respect, be affirma- 
tive ; and mean, of course, the very reverse of what it means as it is. To 
make it refer exclusively to the asserter eould see, would be to represent 
me as stark blind e yet no such sentiment was intended to be expressed. 

Example VI. 

I walked with Henry through the brook flowing near 
William's residence in the park. {Let the learner parse 
all the words in this sentence except the relatives with, 
through, near, and in, and read the parsing of them.] 

with is a relative ; showing the relation of me, in the act of walking-, 
to the man Henry, as the person who accompanied me. 

through is a relative ; showing the relation that existed between the 
event of my walking with Henry, and the brook, as the object, through 
which we walked. 

near is a relative ; showing the relation of the brook, in the act of 
flowing, to the residence of William, as the object near which it was, 
and was flowing. 

in is a relative ; showing, in this place, merely the relation of the 
house, as one object, to the park, as another ; one object being in, ot 
within, the other, the residence being in the park. 

Example VII. 

I saw James or John at church. I saw Seth and Henry 
at school. [Let the learner parse all the words of these 

3 



26 PARSING. 

sentences except or and and, and read the parsing of 
them.] 

or is a connective ; joining together the two names, James and John, 
and thereby so connecting, with the remark, the persons denoted by 
those names, as to represent that what I said is true of one, if it is not 
true of the other. 

and (in the next sentence) is a connective ; joining together the two 
names, Seth and Henry, and connecting them, in such a manner, with the 
sentence, as to make my remark (of seeing Seth and Henry at school) 
apply equally to both persons : and instead of representing my remark 
as in the other sentence, true of one person referred to, if it is not of the 
other, it represents it as true of both, if it is of either. 

Example VIII. 

We should detest vice ; yet pity and seek to relieve its 
deluded victims. " Why ?." [Let the learner parse the 
sentence, and read the parsing of why.] 

why is an interrogative, for it is used alone, to interrogate respecting 
the sentiment expressed by the entire sentence before it, and from this 
fact it is called an interrogative. 

Example IX. 

When will man cease to exist? "Never!" Can mor- 
tals annul their obligations of obedience to God ; or avoid 
the consequences of disobedience, by escaping from his 
jurisdiction ? "No !" [Let the learner parse all the words 
but never and no, and read the parsing of them.] 

never is a replier. It is used alone to constitute a full reply to the 
foregoing question ; and is, in what it expresses, equal to the sentence, 
Man will never cease to exist. 

no is a replier. It is used to constitute a full reply to the question 
contained in the sentence preceding it. 

Example X. 

O Israel! Thou hast destroyed thyself! Alas! that 
man should be so destitute of self-respect, and a sense of 
moral obligation, should so far forget his own true inte- 
rest and high-born destiny, as to descend, by intemperance, 
below the wallowing degradation of the soulless brute ! 
[Let the learner parse all the words except, O and Alas, 
and read the parsing of them.] 

O is an exclamation. It is used for expressing the emotion excited by 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN PARSING. ^7 

the contemplation of the fact expressed by the sentence immediately fol- 
lowing it. It is, like all exclamations, independent of any constructive 
dependence on the sentence, although it refers, necessarily, to the whole 
sentiment. 

alas is an exclamation ; used to express the emotion raised by consi- 
dering man, as he is portrayed by the sentence immediately following it. 
It refers to the entire facts there exhibited, though, as before remarked 
of exclamations, it is, with respect to constructive relation to the sen- 
tence, entirely independent. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



Lesson I. 

Vice stings, severely, her votaries, amid their plea- 
sures. Virtue kindly soothes us amid misfortunes and 
distress. Gaming is the child of avarice, but it is the parent 
of prodigality and ruin. Conquerors and spendthrifts 
should not expect favor in misfortune. Applause is a spur 
to noble minds ; the summit of ambition to weak ones.— 
Lacon. 

Lesson II. 

Wealth is often a snare to its possessor ; and a tempta- 
tion to the mere beholder. The rich feel the impotence 
of wealth, when they are sick. We generally follow the 
world in approving others ; but take the advance ground, 
in approving ourselves. Hurry and low Cunning are the 
apprentices of Despatch and Skill; but neither of them 
learns his master's trade. — Lacon* 

Lesson III. 

The excesses of youth are drafts on age, payable with 
compound interest, when we have not the means for pay- 
ing ten per-cent of the principal : and, for the balance, we 
find health and happiness sacrificed. Bigotry murders 
Religion, to frighten fools with her ghost, while Intelligence 
exhibits her in her own native excellence, for improving 
the heart and correcting the behavior of man. The 
greatest friend to Truth is Time. Her greatest enemy is 
Prejudice, Her constant attendant Humility. — Lacon. 



23 LESSONS IN PARSING, 

Lesson IV. 

My son ; when men praise you, suspect their judgment : 
and when they blame you, let their censure lead you to 
examine, more closely, your motives and your conduct. 
Friendship is like health: it is seldom valued till it is lost. 
Pedantry crams our heads with learned lumber ; and 
makes it like an invaluable coffer, crowded with disgusting 
filth. Emulation seeks superiority and happiness by ex- 
celling merit. Dirty Envy seeks them by degrading it. — - 
Lacon* 

Lesson V. 

Thou shalt not oppress a hired servant. Thou shalt 
give his hire to him.. The fathers shall not be put to death 
for their children. The children shall not be put to death 
for their fathers. Thou shalt not pervert the judgment of 
the stranger or the fatherless. — Bible. 

Lesson VI. 

Thou shalt not take the widow's raiment as a pledge., 
Thou shalt not harden thy heart or shut thy hand against 
thy poor brother. Thou, Lord, hast searched me and 
known me. Thou hast beset me before and behind ; and: 
laid thy hand upon me. Though I should ascend into, 
heaven ; thou art there. — Bible. 

Lesson VII. 

Though I should descend into the grave, lo ! thou art 
there. Though I should take the wings of the morning, 
and dwell in the uttermost parts of the earth ; even there 
thy hand will hold me ; and thy right hand will lead me. 
Though I should say, Surely the darkness shall cover me ; 
even the night will be light about me. The darkness 
hideth not from thee. The darkness and the light are 
alike to thee. — Bible. 



NAMES. 29 

CHAPTER IV. 

NAMES. 

What is a Name ? 

It is a term used for distinguishing an object or idea 
that may be considered separately, or alone ; as earth, 
water, friendship, truth.* [Pupil, give various other 
examples.] 

Of how many sorts are Names ? 

They are of four sorts ; General, Particular, Collective, 
and Assertive. They are also distinguished as Masculine, 
Feminine, Common, and Neuter ; and as Regular, Irregu- 
lar, and Defective. 

What is a General name ? 

It is the name of a kind of objects, as man, mountain, 
city. 

What is a Particular name 1 

It is a name given to one object of a kind, to distinguish 
it from all others of the same kind ; as John, Horace, Andes, 
New- York. 

Is a general name ever prefixed or subjoined to a par- 
ticular term, to constitute, with that, but one name ? 

Terms of address (as they are called) and their abbre- 
viations, are often used in that manner ; as Mr. [Mister 
or Master] John Howard. Mrs. [Mistress] Hannah More. 
Miss Emilia Stevenson. Gen. [General] John Lawrence. 
John Lawrence, jr. [junior or younger.] John Law- 
rence, 2d. [second. This term is used to distinguish, not 
the son, but the nephew of a person having in other re- 
spects the same name.] 

When one of these terms is used, after the particular 
name which marks the identity of an object, to show the 
occupation, rank, or character of the object denoted by 
the particular name, how is it to be regarded?. 

* All words are names when used as words merely, and not to repre- 
sent any idea but the combinations of letters or sounds composing the 
words. John is a name. Is is an asserter in the first sentence ; but 
in this sentence I use it not to assert, but as the name of the combina- 
tion is, as the name of the word, merely, and not to assert existence. 

3* 



30 BISTINCTIONS OF NAMES. 

It is to be regarded as a general name distinct from the 
particular which it follows, yet referring to the same ob- 
ject; as John Howard, Philanthropist. George Washing- 
ton, Commander-in-chief. Philip Hone, Merchant. Mrs. 
Sigourney, Poetess. 

When we would superscribe a letter to a married wo- 
man, are we to use, with the feminine prefix, her Christian 
name or her husband's ? 

Her husband's ; as " Mrs. George Clinton, Buffalo, 
N. Y. v> " Mrs,. Henri/ Huntington y Home." 

Note. — This is based on custom, and in reference to the principle of 
law, that, when a woman is married, she loses her own name in that of 
her husband. The great advantage of it is, that, as the Christian names 
of men, by their business transactions, are more likely to be known 
extensively, than those of their wives, the wives themselves are more 
readily designated by the use of their husband's Christian names, than 
they would be by their own. When, however, the husband and the 
wife are to be referred to separately, we should use the Christian name of 
each ; as He7iry Johnson, and Maria, his wife. So also it is with the 
name of a woman in widowhood ; for then, although she retains the 
surname of him who was her husband ; yet, she is to be addressed by 
her own Christian name, rather than his ; the prefix to the name being 
the same as though she was still a wife. Thus on the death of Henry 
Johnson, the husband, I should address his widow as " Mrs. Maria 
Johnson." 

What is a Collective name ? 

It is a name which denotes a collection of objects that 
may be regarded separately, and independently of fixed 
locality or situation ; as army, school, congregation. 

Does a Particular name ever become General ? 

When a particular name is pluralized, or used to repre- 
sent the character of an object, instead of the object itself, 
it becomes general; as, Webster is the Demosthenes, and 
Clay, the Cicero, of America. The twelve Casars. 

Do collective names also become general, by being 
pluralized ? 

Yes ; as they, by that means, lose the features which 
render necessary the distinction between general and col- 
lective names; as, Napoleon's arm ies filled Europe with 
dismay. Schools are the safeguard of a republic. 

What is an Assertive name ? 

It is a word which partakes the natures of an asserter 
and a name ; as, We should never excuse ourselves from 



SEX. 



31 



relieving the afflicted. To ask the aid of Heaven without 
endeavoring" to help ourselves, is folly, presumption, and 
mockery. To confess the truth, is always better than to 
deny it. 



EXAMPLES OF GENERAL NAMES*.. 



Man 

Woman 

Child 

Books 

Desks 

Chairs 



Mountains 

Rivers 

Field 

Wood 

Universe 

Philanthropy 



Continent: 

Country 

State 

County 

City 

Town 



EXAMPLES OF PARTICULAR NAMES. 



John 

John Marshall 

Mr. Williamson 

George 

George Williams 

George Williamsjr 



George Williams, 2d America 

GustavusLivingston,Esq. United States. 
Hannah London 

Hannah More New-York 

Miss Hannah More Pennsylvania 

. Mrs. Hannah More Rhode Island 



EXAMPLES OF COLLECTIVE NAMES. 

School Army Clan 

Family Regiment Multitude 

Library Company Rabble 

Tea-party Legislature Mob 

EXAMPLES OF ASSERTIVE NAMES. 

James fainted on beholding his sister, who had been 
prevented by sickness from returning home. She re- 
joiced at meeting again her friends. Ned was whipped 
for stealing apples. 

SEX, 

What is Sex? 

It is the medium of distinction between males and 
females. 

How are names and simple substitutes distinguished 
with respect to sex, or absence of sex in the objects which 
they denote ? 



32 



SEX. 



They are distinguished as Masculine, Feminine, Com- 
mon, and Neuter. 

What do Masculine names and substitutes denote? 

The}' denote objects of the male sex ; as, James sold his 
books. 

What do Feminine names and substitutes denote ? 

They denote objects of the female sex ; as, Maria saw 
her friends. 

What are Common names and substitutes? 

They are terms which are common to both sexes ; as, 
my friend, give me the names of your associates. 

What are Neuter names and substitutes ? 

They are terms which represent objects without sex ; as, 
I ate an apple. It was sour. 

The English language has three modes of distinction be- 
tween males and females. The first is by a difference in 
the termination of words, as in the following examples : 



Males. 


Females. 


Males. 


Females. 


Actor 


Actress 


Instructer 


Instructress 


Abbot 


Abbess 


Jew 


Jewess 


Adulterer 


Adulteress 


Lion 


Lioness 


Arbiter 


Arbitress 


Landgrave 


s LandgraWwe 


Administrator Administra^rz 


xFeer 


Peeress 


Ambassador 


Ambassadress Priest 


Priestess 


Author 


Authoress 


Poet 


Poetess 


Baron 


Baroness 


Prince 


Princess 


Benefactor 


Benefactress 


Prophet 


Prophetess 


Bridegroom 


Bride 


Patron 


Patroness 


Count 


Countess 


Protector 


Protectress 


Conductor 


Conductress 


Prior 


Prioress 


Chanter 


Chan tress 


Shepherd 


Shepherdess 


Caterer 


Cateress 


Sorcerer 


Sorceress 


Deacon 


Deconess 


Songster 


Songs tress- 


Embassador 


Embassadress Seamster 


Seamstress 


Emperor 


Empress 


Sultan 


Sultana, Sultaness 


Executor 


"Executrix 


Tutor 


Tutoress 


Elector 


Electress 


Tailor 


Tailoress 


Enchanter 


Enchantress 


Traitor 


Traitress 


Governor 


Governess 


Tiger 


Tigress 


Hero 


Heroine 


Testator 


Testatrix 


Heir 


Heiress 


Viscount 


Viscountess 


Hunter 


Huntress 


Votary 


Votaress 


Host 


Hostess 


Widower 


Widow 



SEX. 



33 



The secor 


id mode is by 


a change of the 


entire word ; as, 


Males. 


Femalcs. 


Males. 


Females. 


Bachelor 


Maid 


Lad 


Lass 


Beau 


Belle 


Lord 


Lady 


Boy 


Girl 


Man 


Woman 


Brother 


Sister 


Master 


Mistress 


Buck 


Doe 


Milter 


Spawner 


Drake 


Duck 


Nephew 


Niece 


Duke 


Duchess 


Singer Songstress or Singer 


Earl 


Countess 


Sloven 


Slut 


Father 


Mother 


Son 


Daughter 


Friar 


Nun 


Sir 


Madam 


Gander 


Goose 


Stag 


Hind 


Hart 


Roe 


Steei? 


Heifer 


Husband 


Wife 


Uncle 


Aunt 


King 


Queen 


Wizzard 


Witch 



The third mode is by prefixing a name, substitute, or 
adname to the word denoting the object ; as, 

Males. Females. 

A man servant A maid servant 

A cock sparrow A hen sparrow 

A he goat A she goat 

A he bear A she bear 

A male child A female child 



Male descendants 



Female descendants 



Friend 

Teacher 

Pupil 

Traveler 

Sojourner 

Companion 

Associate 



EXAMPLES OF COMMON NAMES. 

Parent Animal 

Child Quadruped 

Stranger Beast 

Neighbor Dove 

Christian Fish 



Heathen 
Wretch 



Insect 
Animalcule 



Book • 

Canopy 

Darkness 

Death 

Light 



EXAMPLES OF NEUTER NAMES. 

Life Degradation- 



Joy 

Virtue 

Happiness 

Vice 



Misery 
Despair 
Time 
Eternity 



34 PERSON — NUMBER. 

Are masculine and feminine names ever applied to 
neutral objects ; and neuter terms applied to male or 
female objects ? 

Yes : as, the packet-boat John Adams. The steam-ship 
Victoria. William was the staff of his aged parents. 
Helen was their solace and joy. [See this treated of, more 
fully, in Rhetoric, under the heads " Simile" and " Per- 
sonification."] 

How are names and substitutes thus applied to be 
parsed ? 

They are to be parsed as they are used — as masculine 
or feminine terms applied to neutral objects ; or as neutral 
terms applied to male or female objects (as the fact may 
be) ; their person, form, and case being given or defined 
as in other circumstances. 

Note. Parsing, let the pupil understand and remember, is describing 
facts concerning words ; or representing them in their offices and rela- 
tions as they are, not as he may fancy they might have been. 

PERSON. 

What is Person ? 

It is the medium of distinction between the speaker, the 
object addressed or spoken to, and the object spoken of. 

How many persons have names and substitutes I 

Names have two ; the Second and the Third. Substi- 
tutes have three ; the First, Second, and the Third. 

What does the First person denote ? 

It denotes, by one word, the speaker, as such, or the 
speaker and those associated with him ; as, I am well. 
We must go home. 

What does the Second person denote ? 

It denotes the object addressed or spoken to ; as, James, 
learn your lesson. Boys, learn your lessons. 

What does the Third person denote ? 

It denotes, not the speaker, as such, but some other ob- 
ject spoken of; as, Henry found his books. 

NUMBER. 

What is Number ? 

It is the representation of objects with respect ta single- 
ness, or plurality. 



REGULAR NAMES. 35 

How many forms have names and substitutes for distin- 
guishing objects with respect to number? 

They have two; the Singular and Plural. 

What does the singular form of a name or a substitute 
express ? 

It expresses but one ; or it denotes a single object ; as, 
man, book, he, it. 

What does the plural form of a name or substitute ex- 
press ? 

It expresses more than one ; or it denotes a plurality of 
objects ; as, men, books, we, they. 

What are Regular names 1 

They are those which have s, ores, added to the singular 
form to render it plural ; as, singular, book, virtue, 
church : plural, book.?, virtues, churches. They allow 
the exchanging of the terminating y, for?, as that does not 
affect the sound of the word, as singular, body : plural, 
bodies. 

What are Iiregular names ? 

They are those which are not made plural by the addi- 
tion of $, or es, to the singular form, but have the plural 
made in some other ways ; as, singular, man, child, mouse, 
foot, synopsis, phenomenon : plural, men, children, mice, 
feet, synopses, phenomena. 

What are Defective names ? 

They are those which have not appropriate forms to 
distinguish singularity and plurality ; as, deer, sheep, 
wealth, wheat, pinchers, shears, means, amends.* 

EXAMPLES OF REGULAR NAMES. 

Singular for m. Plural form. Singular form. Plural form. 

Adname Adnames Grate Grates 

Apple Apples Gratuity Gratuities 

Asserter Asserters Guide Guides 

Almond . Almonds Hamlet Hamlets 

* All abstract names or names of qualities considered apart from the 
objects to which they necessarily belong, are Defective names ; as, white, 
or whiteness, darkness, redness. These terms are the names of quali- 
ties, considered in the abstract, which if denoted by adnames would be 
represented as belonging to some objects. Thus, in the expression — a 
white house, the adname white represents as belonging to the house, the 
quality whose abstract name is whiteness or wliitc. These names, from 
the nature of their representation, cannot be pluralized. 



36 



IRREGULAR NAMES. 



Singular form. Plural form. 
Alien Aliens 


Singular form. Plural form. 
Harrow Harrows 


Attorney 
Alteration 


Attorneys 
Alterations 


Hawk 
Herd 


Hawks 
Herds 


Book 
Box 

Bank 


Books 
Boxes 

Banks 


Interrogative 

Iceberg 

Idler 


i Interrogatives 
Icebergs 
Idlers 


Bowl 


Bowls 


Juror 


Jurors 


Baron 


Barons 


Jury 


Juries 


Brush 


Brushes 


Juice 


Juices 


Battle 
Beacon 


Battles 
Beacons 


Key 
Kettle 


Keys 

Kettles 


Connective 


Connectives 


Label 


Labels 


Candle 
Cabal 


Candles 
Cabals 


Lackey 
Lance 


Lackeys 
Lances 


Cask 


Casks 


Modifier 


Modifiers 


Canopy 

Copy 

Day 


Canopies 

Copies 

Days 


Mandate 

Maladv 

Nail 


Mandates 

Maladies 

Nails 


Desk 


Desks 


Name 


Names 


Danger 
Dart 


Dangers 
Darts 


Owner 
Ode 


Owners 
Odes 


Drum 


Drums 


Paint 


Paints 


Drummer 


Drummers 


Parlor 


Parlors 


Exclamation 


Exclamations Porter 


Porters 


Eagle 


Eagles 


Quadrant 


Quadrants 


Emissary 


Emissaries 


Query 


Queries 


Emolument 


Emoluments 


Replier 


Repliers 


Eulogy 


Eulogies 


Race 


Races 


Farm 


Farms 


Raven 


Ravens 


Fool 


Fools 


Substitute 


Substitutes 



EXAMPLES OF IRREGULAR NAMES. 



Singular form 


Plural form. 


Singular form. 


Plural form. 


Child 


Children 


Half 


Halves 


Foot 


Feet 


Shelf 


Shelves 


Man 


Men 


Knife 


Knives 


Woman 


Women 


Leaf 


Leaves 


Ox 


Oxen 


Beef 


Beeves 


Goose 


Geese 


Calf 


Calves 


Tooth 


Teeth 


Staff 


Staves 



DEFECTIVE NAMES. 



37 



Singular form. 
Beau 

Batteau 

Synopsis 
Emphasis 
Hypothesis 
Antithesis 



Plural form. 

\ Beaux or 
Beaus 

, Batteaux or 
Batteaus 
Synopses 
Emphases 
Hypotheses 
Antitheses 



Singular form. 

Life 

Loaf 

Sheaf 

Sheif 

Wolf 

Wharf 

Thief 

Wife 



Plural form. 

Lives 

Loaves 

Sheaves 

Shelves 

Wolves 

Wharves 

Thieves 

Wives 



EXAMPLES OF DEFECTIVE NAMES. 

They are of several classes. First, those which are 
used only in the singular form, and require after them the 
singular form of the asserter ; as, 

Wheat Silver Haughtiness Humility 

Pitch Pride Contempt Pity 

Gold Disdain Hatred Friendship 

Goodness Blackness Darkness Love 



Second ; those which are 
and require after them the pi 



Annals 

Archives 

Ashes 

Assets 

Betters 

Bowels 

Breeches 

Compasses 

Clothes 



Calends 

Drawers 

Downs 

Dregs 

Embers 

Entrails 

Fetters 

Filings 

Goods 



used only in 
ural form of 
Ides 
Lees 
Lungs 
Orgies 
Nippers 
Pincers 
Pleiads 
Snuffers 
Customs 



the plural form, 
the asserter ; as, 

Shears 

Scissors 

Tidings 

Tongs 

Thanks 

Vespers 

Vitals 

Victuals 

Riches 



Third ; those that are in the plural form, yet are always 
to be used in the singular sense; as, 

News Pneumatics 

Billiards Politics 

Ethics Metaphysics 

Mathematics Pneumonics 

Fourth •, those which, in the singular form, may be used 
in the singular or plural sense ; as, 

Deer Fish Salmon 

Sheep Cannon Haddock 

Swine Shot Tmui 

4 



38 PLtTRALIZATlON OF REGULAR NAMES. 

Fifth ; those which, in the plural form, may be used in 
the plural or singular sense ; as, 

Wages, Means, Amends, Gallows, Bellows. 

Formation of the Plural of Regular Names. 

How are the regular names made plural which end 
with x, s, ss, sh, or ch ? (the ' ch 1 having the English sound, 
as in cheer.) 

By the addition of es to the singular form ; as, singular? 
tax, gas, kiss, lash, church : plural, «taxes, gases, kisses, 
lashes, churches. 

How are those made plural which end in ch sounded 
like k ? 

By the addition of s only ; as, singular, distich, anarch, 
monarch: plural, distichs, anarchs, monarchs. 

How are regular names, ending with other consonants, 
made plural ? 

By the addition of s only ; as, singular, crib, critic, lad, 
chief, ruff, log, trough, brick, portal, spoonful, palm, ra- 
tion, scrip, crater, hat, curfew : plural, cribs, critics, lads, 
chiefs, ruffs, logs, troughs, bricks, portals, spoonfuls, 
palms, rations, scrips, craters, hats, curfews. If, however, 
any name should be found ending with z, it would be plu- 
ralized by the addition of es. 

How are those pluralized, which end in y, preceded by 
another vowel in the same syllable ? 

By the addition of s to the singular form ; as day, key, 
attorney, valley : plural, days, keys, attorneys, valleys. 

How are those made plural, which end in y, without an- 
other vowel in the same syllable ? 

By changing y for i, and adding es ; as, singular, lady, 
ally, query, beauty, fly : plural, ladies allies, queries, beau- 
ties, flies. *-' [The name penny is made plural in this man- 
ner when it denotes pieces of money or coins ; as, ten 
pennies, or pieces of money valued at a penny each : but 
it is changed to k pence, y when representing the amount ; 
as, I gave him twelve pence; that is, a shilling, for his 
book.] 

* The term alkali is made plural by the addition of es ; as alkalies. 
Should others be found or formed, either general or particular names, 
ending in it, the plural would be made by the addition of es. 



PLURALIZAT10N OF REGULAR NAMES. 39 

How are those made plural which end in o, sounded like 
oo, (as in too,) or immediately preceded by another vowel? 

By adding 5 only ; as, singular, two, canto, bamboo, 
tattoo, nuncio, Scipio : plural, the twos, cantos, bamboos, 
tatoos, nuncios, the Scipios. 

When they end in o, neither sounded like oo, nor imme* 
diately preceded by another vowel, how is their plural 
made ? 

By adding es ; as, singular, hero, echo, manifesto, negro : 
plural, heroes, echoes, manifestoes, negroes.* 

How are those made plural which end in a, e, or u ? 

By the addition of s, only ; as, singular, lama, zebra, 
creature, palace, landau, gnu, beau : plural, lamas, ze- 
bras, creatures, palaces, landaus, gnus, beans. f 

Have we any irregular names ending with vowels, and 
changing their terminations to make the plural? 

No. 

When a name is formed by anexing a relative with, or 
without another name, where is the sign of plurality to be 
placed ? 

It is to be annexed to the first term in the combination, 
in the same manner as though it stood alone. As fathers- 
in-law, sons-in-law. The Commanders-in-chief of the 
opposing armies, The word aidecamp, is regularly plu- 
ralized ; as aidecamps, notwithstanding its meaning and 
formation in another language. 

* Particular names are exceptions ; they being pluralized by adding 
s only. 

t Words derived from other languages should enter ours only in the 
singular, that is, their natural form ; and in every thing but their origi- 
nal formation, should be subject to our idiom. (Even in their formation, 
they ought not wholly to escape the English pruning-knife. See the 
second j paragraph of note 5, page 18 ) The words beau, seraph, stra- 
tum, radius, vortex, and all others that can, consistently with sound, 
should be made subject to the English rules for the formation of regular 
plurals ; as, beau*, seraphs, stratum*, radiuses, vortexes ; not beauar, 
strata, radh', vortices. These words are now made plural, both accord- 
ing to the English and other idioms ; as, beaus, or beaurt, bureaus, or 
bureaux. Some words, however, have, by common consent, been incor- 
porated with their own plurals. These will probably remain in their 
present state, till some mighty and successful effort shall be made to re- 
deem, from imperfection and irregularity, the orthography of our lan- 
guage. They will then, with all others, take their place in the ranks of 
&rder and uniformity. 



40 PLTJRAL1ZATION OF IRREGULAR NAMES. 

Are particular names in becoming general, subject to 
these rules with the single exception noticed on page 39? 

Yes. 

When we would, by the use of the surname and term of 
address, refer to several persons of the same name, should 
the sign of plurality be affixed to the name or the term of 
address ? 

As the term of address thus united with the name, con- 
stitutes, with that, but one name, the sign of plurality 
should be annexed to the whole combination •, as, the 
Mr. Huntingtons. The Mrs. Livingstons. The Miss 
Clintons. 

When we would refer to several persons of one surname, 
yet use the Christian names for the sake of greater par- 
ticularity, where should the sign of plurality be placed ? 

It should be joined to the term of address, in the same 
manner as though the names were wholly different. As 
Messrs. Henry, George, and Gurdon Huntington. Mrss. 
[Mistresses] Abigail and Frances Pierson. Misses Amelia 
and Juliana Clinton. 

How are alphabetical characters and numericals plural- 
ized ? 

When they are used instead of the letters constituting 
their own names, they are pluralized by annexing the let- 
ters, preceded by an apostrophe ('), as the a's, the 5 r s, the 
w's, the l's, the 2's, the 20's ; $ and x, however, are excep- 
tions. They are pluralized by adding es preceded by a 
hyphen [-], as the s-es ; the x-es. 

The full names of consonants follow the rules for regu- 
lar names except that they have an apostrophe between the 
name and the pluralizing s when the 3 is used without the 
£, as the he's ; the ce's, the doubleyu's. 

Formation of the Plural of Irregular Names. 

Have we any definite rules by which to determine what 
names are irregularly pluralized ? 

No I nor can we ever have, while the orthography of 
our language remains in its present unsystemized state. 

How, then, are we to learn their distinctions ? 

Chiefly by lists or tables, and examples. 

How are those irregular names pluralized which end in 

/» V, OTff? 



USE OF DEFECTIVE NAMES. 41 

By exchanging/ for v, and adding es ; as, singular, loaf, 
half, thief, staff:* plural, loaves, halves, thieves, staves. 
The derivative, distaff, has the regular plural, distaffs. 

How are those made plural which have fe in their ter- 
mination ? 

By changing f to v, and adding s, only; as, singular, 
life j knife : plural, lives, knives. 

How are those pluralized which have sis, for their last 
syllable 1 

By changing i for e; as, singular, thesis, antithesis, 
synthesis, basis: plural, theses, antitheses, syntheses, ba- 
ses* To these may be added the name axis; (plural, 
axes.) The plural of other irregular names must be deter- 
mined by reference to the tables. 

Have we no other directions for forming their plural? 

No other rules can be given. One hint, however, may 
be of some service. [Poor consolation, this ! but the fault 
is in our dictionaries.] When the speaker or writer shall 
find a name cf whose plural he is in doubt, let him incline 
to the English mode of forming the regular plural, and he 
will generally be safe. Though he should err, in that re- 
spect, he needs not blvsh. A dictionary should give the 
plural of every word which is not regularly made plural, 
and should have those marked, as defective, which really 
are so. 

USE OF DEFECTIVE NAMES. 

When is a defective name of the fifth class to be re- 
garded as used in the singular sense ? 

When it represents only one particular, event, or fact ; 
as, William lost his money at Buffalo ; and by this means 
was prevented from proceeding farther west. Seth's 
wages is seventy-five dollars per month. 

When is a word of the fifth class of the defective names 
regarded as being in the plural sense? 

When it represents several facts, particulars, or events ; 
as, Henry's health failed. His pecuniary disappointments 
multiplied. His store and mills were burned ; and by 
these means he became insolvent. He surrendered his 

* Staff is the only word ending in ff that has the plural irregularly 
formed. 

4* 



42 CASE. 

wife's estate, and yielded to his creditors the last farthing 
that he possessed ; which amends, though not ample, were 
regarded by his creditors as honorable. They allowed 
him a new credit, and by this means he fully retrieved his 
affairs and paid his former debts. The wages of the three 
brothers were different ; according to their respective 
ages. 

CASE, 

What is Case ? 

It is the medium of distinction used to describe, by the 
relation of a name or substitute to other words, the rela- 
tion of an object or idea to some fact or event, or of one 
object to another. 

In how many different cases are names and substitutes 
used ? 

They are used in five ; four simple cases ; the Subject- 
ive, Possessive, Objective, and the Independent; and the 
Twofold case ; which is a representation by one word, of 
two simple cases. 

Why is the Subjective case so named ? 

Because the word in that case denotes the person or 
idea that is the subject of remark, and with its dependent 
asserter, constitutes a sentence; as, John wrote his poem, 
with a steel pen, in Maria's album. 

Note. — By taking with the asserter wrote, words enough co constitute a 
remark, I form the sentence John wrote, the briefest sentence that can be 
made. If I should ask, Who is the subject of that remark 1 the answer 
would be the man John. Inasmuch then, as the man John is repre- 
sented as being the subject of that remark ; and inasmuch as the name 
John is so used as to represent the person denoted by it to be the sub- 
ject of that remark ; we perceive the reason why the name is said to be 
in the subjective case, that is, the case or relation of a word denoting the 
person who is the subject of the remark. 

Why is the Possessive case so named ? 

Because the word in that case represents the object de- 
noted by it, as having or possessing something ; as, John 
wrote his poem, with a steel pen, in Maria's album. 

Note. — Here it is perceived that the term his represents the person 
{John] denoted by it, as having or possessing something, and by its 
reference to and dependence on the name poem, it represents him as 
being the possessor of the object denoted by that word. The word his 
then is termed possessive, because it represents the object denoted as 
having or possessing something ; and said to be in the possessive case 



CASE. 43 

or relation, because it so relates to, and depends on, the name poem as to 
represent the relation of the owner or possessor to the thing owned or 
possessed. In the example of the phrase, Maria's album, the name 
Maria is in the possessive case or relation. It sustains to the name 
album the same relation that the term his in the same sentence sustains to 
the name poem, and it represents the person Maria as possessing the 
album or book, just as the term his represents the person John as pos- 
sessing the poem. 

"Why is the Objective case so named ? 

Because thje word in that case represents the person or 
idea denoted by it as being the object either of the action 
or influence expressed by an asserter, or after the relation 
described by a relative ; as, John wrote his poem with a 
steel pen in Maria's album. 

Note. — Here it is perceived that the name poem denotes an object, 
and by its relation to and dependence on the asserter wrote, it represents 
the poem to have been the object affected by the act of writing ; and from 
this fact, it is said to be in the objective case. The name, pen, is in the 
objectve case ; for the fact, that though the sentence John wrote his 
poem, is the complete expression of an event; yet the example, John 
wrote his poem with a steel pen, represents the event of his writing the 
poem, as being related to some object. That object is the instrument 
denoted by the name pen ; which name is so used as to exhibit, by means 
of the word with, the relation of the pen to the event of his writing his 
poem. It is therefore said to be in the objective case ; with being a 
relative. 

The name album is also in the objective case, for it denotes another 
object, which is represented by the relative in, as being related to the 
event of John's writing his poem. The name album, represents the 
book as sustaining, to the event of writing the poem, the relation of 
place to the event occurring in it ; the relative in showing whether he 
wrote the poem on, or near t or in the album. 

Why is the Independent case so named ? 

Because the word in that case stands free from any 
constructive dependence on asentence, anddoes not of itself 
represent that the object denoted by it had any particular 
connexion with the event which the sentence, to which 
it may refer, expresses ; as, William : John wrote his 
poem with a steel pen in Maria's album. 

Note. — Here it is seen that the name William, whatever may be its 
general reference, is independent of any constructive relation to the sen- 
tence following it ; for though the name William should be omitted, 
the sentence would stand entire. Thus — John wrote his poem with a 
steel pen in Maria's album. The sentence is just as complete as before : 
although before there Was a reference to William as the hearer or reader 
of what that sentence expresses. The sentence is as complete without 



44 DECLENSION OF NAMES. 

the name William as with it : which shows that the name William is 
used independently of the sentence, and words of the sentence, following 
it. Besides, the name William, as used, does not represent the man de- 
noted by it, as having had any connexion with the event of John's 
writing in the album. 

Why is the Twofold case so named ? 

Because the word in that case sustains a twofold relation 
to the sentence in which it occurs, or the words to which 
it refers ; as, John took his book, and left mine, John took 
his book, and left Henry's. [In the first example, it is per- 
ceived that the word mine represents me as the possessor 
of something, as much as the term my could have done it ; 
which shows it in the possessive case. It also represents 
the book as the object that John left, which shows it to be 
in the objective case ; while both facts, unitedly considered, 
represent it in the twofold case. Like the term my, for 
which it stands, it is seen in the possessive case, from its 
denoting the possessor of something ; and like the term 
book for which it stands it is seen in the objective case, 
from its denoting the object affected by the act of leaving, 
and depending on the asserter left. The name Henry's, so 
far as it relates to case, is parsed in the same manner.] 

What is the declension of a name ? 

It is changing the word to make the possessive form, 
and to represent objects with respect to number. 

How is the possessive form of a name made ? 

"When the name does not end with the sound of s or z, 
it is made by adding, to the name, an apostrophe ('), with 
the letter 5 following the apostrophe ; as, John's book. 
Maria's friend. Henry's regard. 

When the name does end with the sound of s or z, (no 
matter what letter represents the sound,) the possessive 
form is made by annexing only an apostrophe ; as. The 
witness' sake. Conscience' sake. Goodness' sake. Ja- 
bez' unwillingness. Felix' reply. 

When the use of the possessive form of a name would 
be both hard of expression, and unpleasant to the ear, how 
should the possessorship be represented ? 

By the relative of; as, the fragrance of the rose : in- 
stead of the rose' fragrance. 

May names ever be used so as to become other parts of 
speech ? 



DECLENSION OF NAMES. 45 

Yes. A name standing alone is a term used for distin- 
guishing an object or idea that may be considered sepa- 
rately, and does not lose its qualities as a name by its 
having an asserter or relative in connexion with it, but 
may be used as other parts of speech by its constructive 
relation ; that is, the relation which it assumes by assum- 
ing a certain place in a sentence. 

Note. A name becomes an adname by depending on another name ; 
thereby representing the quality or substance which itself denotes, as 
belonging to the object denoted by the name on which it depends ; as, a 
silver spoon ; an oak chest. It may become a modifier by being used 
without a relative, and referring to time, place, manner, or proportion ; 
as, John went home. He had traveled west two days. He sold his west- 
ern land for three hundred dollars a lot; by which he raised his wealth, 
but sunk his character three times faster than he had ever done it be- 
fore. 

When thus used, they may, in their name capacity, have adnames be- 
longing to them ; while yet, by their constructive relation, they exert 
their influence variously ; by being used with, or without adnames, as mo- 
difiers, as adnames, as exclamations, and repliers. [See the Appendix.] 

When should the possessive form of a name be used in 
the twofold case? 

When it can represent clearly both the possessor and 
the thing possessed ; as, I must go first to William's house, 
and then to Henry's. Maria's book was taken, but Jane's 
was left. Whose umbrella did John take ? Seth's 

EXAMPLES OF THE DECLENSION OF GENERAL NAMES. 
Singular. Plural. 

Subj. form, A man, Subj. form, Men, 

Poss. form, A man's [book,] Poss. form, Men's [books,] 
Cbj. form, A man, Obj. form, Men, 

Indep. form, A man, Indep. form, Men. 

Singular. Plural. 

Subj. form, A senator, Subj. form, Senators, 

Pos. form, A senator's [duty] Poss. form, Senators' [duties] 
Obj. form, A senator, Obj. form, Senators, 

Indep. form, A senator, Indep. form, Senators, 



46 DECLENSION OF NAMES. 



EXAMPLES OF THE DECLENSION OF PARTICULAR NAMES. 

Singular. Plural. [Here they become 

general.] 
Subj. Maria, Subj. The Marias, 

Poss. Maria's [book,] Poss. The Marias' [books,] 

Obj. Maria, Obj. The Marias, 

Indep. Maria, Indep. The Marias. 

Singular. Plural. 

Subj. Alice, Subj. The Alices, 

Poss. Alice' [friends,] Poss. The Alices' [friends,] 

Obj. Alice, Obj. The Alices, 

Indep. Alice, Indep. The Alices. 

Singular. Plural. 

Subj. Felix, Subj; The Felixes, 

Poss. Felix' [property,] Poss. The Felixes' [property] 

Obj. Felix, Obj. The Felixes, 

Indep. Felix, Indep. The Felixes. 

From this view of the declension, it is seen that the only 
change of form, which case requires in names, is the an- 
nexing of the sign which distinguishes the possessive form 
from the other. 

Does the twofold case of names require any peculiarity 
of form ? 

No. It is used in both forms ; as, I will aid whatever 
person shall need my assistance. I left my book and took 
William's. 

Note. In the first example the name person is in the twofold case. 
It sustains to the asserter will assist the relation of the objective case, 
from its denoting the object of the action expressed by the asserter ; and 
depending on it for sense : and to the asserter shall need it, sustains the 
relation of the subjective case from its denoting the person who is the 
subject of remark, and from its having the asserter shall need depending 
on it for sense. 

What is the mutual relation and dependence of words as 
exhibited in the cases of names and substitutes, in simple 
sentences ? 

The word in the subjective case, is the leading term of 
the sentence, and the one on which the asserter depends 



EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. 47 

for sense, and which, with the asserter, makes good sense 
without the aid of other words. Every word, in the objec- 
tive case, depends either on an asserter or relative, to unite 
it with the other parts of the sentence ; and without de- 
pendence on an asserter or relative, no word is used in the 
objective case : while the word in the possessive case de- 
pends for application and sense on the term denoting the 
thing possessed ; as, John : I sold my books to William 
for his brothers. 

Note. Here it is seen that the name John, in the independent case, 
is free from any constructive relation to the sentence, or dependence on 
it ; and does not represent that the person denoted by it, had any con- 
nexion with the event. It is also seen that without the word /, in the 
subjective case, the asserter sold, would have no application or sense. 

Example. sold my books to "William, &c. While the asserter 

depends on the word in the subjective case ; the word in the objective 

case depends on the asserter, or on a relative. Example. I my 

books to William, &c» This would be nonsense, for the want of the 
asserter on which the name books depends for sense. The entire de- 
pendence of the word in the possessive case, on the word denoting the 

thing possessed, will be seen by the next Example. I sold my to 

William, &c. The term my in the possessive form, as thus used, has 
no sense, for want of the name book : or some other term to denote the 
object possessed. In the next place the name William, as it is used, would 
lose its sense as applied, if it was not for the relative to ; for to say, I 

sold my book William, would either mean that the word William 

was the name of the book, or mean nothing. The name William, then, 
depends for sense on the relative to. In the next place, the name bro- 
thers depends for sense on the relative for, [To say I sold my book to 

William his brothers, would be nonsense,] and the substitute his, in 

the possessive case, depends for application and sense on the term bro- 
thers, denoting the objects which William. possessed of had ; for to say, 
I sold my book to William for his , would be nonsense. 

As the dependence of words in a sentence is more fully illustrated by 
the following figurative exemplifications, the pupil should study them till 
he shall be able, without difficulty, to apply to them any simple sentences 
that he shall find. 

The name John in plate I, is unconnected with the sentence follow- 
ing it ; and is, consequently, in the independent case. 

The term I, in the subjective case, is represented as a hook or staple, 
from which all the other parts of the sentence are suspended. 

The asserter sell is represented as a large link, which supports the 
succeeding parts of the sentence ; attaching them to the term I, as the 
staple. 

The relatives are represented as small links, joining the names (in the 
rings) following them, to the preceding parts of the sentence, and thereby 
showing the objects denoted by those names, as being related to, and 
connected with the event denoted by the sentence. 



48 EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. 

It will be perceived in the figure that taking away the staple, [7, for 
example] all the other parts of the sentence would drop into nonsense. 

Thus sold my books to William, &c. :„ that taking away the 

large link [sell for example] would cause all the following parts of the 

sentence to become nonsense : Thus, I my books to William, &c, 

that to use the term I, and the asserter sell, and take away the term books, 
[in the first ring] would cause the term my, [the side link] and all fol- 
lowing the name books, to be senseless. Thus, I sell my to 

William, &c, that to use the expression, I sell my books, and yet omit 
the relative to, [the first small link] would make nonsense of every part 

now following that word. Thus 1 sell my books William, &c, 

that to use the expression, I sell my books to, and yet omit the name 
William, [in the second ring] would be to render useless and senseless 
the term to, [the first small link] and all the other parts of the sentence. 
Thus, I sell my book to for gentlemen, &c. 

RECAPITULATION. 

The word in the subjective case, as the hook or staple, 
is the support of a simple affirmative or interrogative sen- 
tence. The asserter depends on the word in that case, 
while the other names, substitutes, and relatives, as they 
occur, act as so many mutually dependent parts or links, to 
form the whole sentence into a complete chain of words, 
representing a complete chain of ideas ; referring to, and 
depending on each other : Thus : 



50 



PLATE I. 



Q 



♦2 m 






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SIGNS OF THE CASES. 51 

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58 



PLATE II. 



Jane: 



Who T James 



l&6\>. Case. 
Sub, Case, 



Asserter, live* 



&yqse 



vT3 oi 



Relative, near 



What T [the] house Obj. Case, 



Bbih 





Relative, 


of 




Whom? 


Seth 




Relative, 


in 



Objo Case, 



city 



^ What? [the] city Obj. Case, 



|New York,] 



Relative, of 



cLS What ? 

G, P< 
<3 



New York, Obj. Case. 



1i] 



Island. 



Relative, on 



What? fM'n.] Island. Ofcj. Case 



*s 



EXPLANATION OF PLATE II. $3 



SENTENCE. 

What is a simple Sentence 1 

It is a combination of words expressing some fact or event, and making 
sense of itself, having in it a word in the subjective case, and an asserter 
depending on that word for sense ; as, James lives. John writes. Where 
is Henry ] 

What is a Phrase 1 

It is a combination of w T ords not amounting to a complete sentence 
but express in a set of ideas, either separately from a sentence or in con-» 
nexion with one ; as, An elegant house. John went to Utica. 

Of what does an Appendant phrase consist 1 

It consists of a name or substitute and a relative, (with, or without 
other words attached to the name or substitute,) joined, by means of the 
relative, to a sentence, for expressing ideas in connexion with the sen- 
tence ; as, James lives. This is a sentence. [See the chain] James 
lives near the house. This is a sentence with one appendant phrase. 
[See the chain.] James lives near the house of Selh. A simple sen- 
tence with two appendant phrases. [See the chain ] James lives near 
the house of Seth in the city. A sentence with three appendant phrases. 
[See the chain.] James lives near the house of Seth in the city of New 
York. A sentence with four appendant phrases. [See the chain.] 
James lives near the house of Seth in the city of New York, on Man- 
hattan Island, [" M'n Island."] A sentence with five appendant phrases. 
[See the chain.] 

N. B. In every appendant phrase you will always find a relative and a 
word in the objective case. Remember too, that any name or substitute, 
joined by a connective, in the same simple sentence, to the objective 
word of an appendant must itself be in the objective case. I spoke, is a 
sentence. I spoke to Henry, is a sentence with one appendant phrase, 
and the name Henry in that appendant phrase is in the objective case. 
I spoke to Henry and William. Here the name William being joined by 
and to the name Henry, is in the same case as that name. 

An asserter may occur after several appendant phrases, and, referring 
to one of the objectives in an appendant phrase, or to the word in the 
subjective case, may begin a new series of appendant phrases ; as, I 
visited Horatio in Utica to induce him to accompany me on my tour to 
ike far West. 



54 LESSONS IN PARSING. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

[In the following lessons, a few words, only, will be 
parsed for the pupil : the remainder he must parse for 
himself.] 

Lesson I. 

Seth i Maria loves her brother for his intelligence and 
virtue. William seeks enjoyment in activity and useful- 
ness. He is happy in the pursuit and attainment of wis- 
dom and goodness. The wise man is happy in his own 
esteem. The fool is satisfied with the applause of others. 

Seth is a name, being a term by which an object is known : particu- 
lar ; it is used to particularize a single object : masculine ; it denotes a 
male : of the second person ; it denotes the object addressed or spoken to : 
in the singular form ; it denotes but one :* in the independent case ; it is 
free from any constructive relation to, or dependence on, the sentence 
following it, and represents the person denoted by it as being uncon- 
nected with the event expressed by the sentence. [It is used like the 
name John above the staple /, of plate I ] 

Maria is a name ; being a term by which an object is known : parti- 
cular ; it is used to particularize a single object : feminine ; it denotes a 
female : of the third person ; it denotes not the speaker or writer, (as 
such,) but some other object spoken of: in the singular form ? the form 
which denotes but one :* in the subjective case ; it represents the person 
denoted by it as the subject of remark. Like the term 7, in the staple, 
plate I, it answers the question who 1 or what ? and has an asserter 
[loves] depending on it for sense. 

loves is an asserter ; heing a part of speech used to assert ; it is tran- 
sitive ; it conveys the idea of the exercise, by Maria, of the passion or 
state of mind called love, and represents it as extending to the brother, 
as the object : it depends, for sense, on the name Maria, in the same 
manner that sell, in the large link, plate I, depends on the term /, in the 
staple. 

her is a substitute ; being a word used in the place of another : sim- 
ple ; it merely stands in the place of the name Maria, and acts as that 
name would have stood and acted in its own place : feminine ; it denotes 
that a female is meant : of the third person ; it denotes not the speaker 
or writer, as such, but another object spoken of: in the singular form ; 
the form which denotes but one : in the possessive case ; it represents 
the person denoted by it as having or possessing something : it precedes 
and depends on, the name brother, which denotes the object that she has 
or possesses, in the same manner that the term my in the side link, plate 
I, depends on the name looks in the first ring. 

* As all particular names are regular, their distinctions, in that respect, 
need not be named. When particular names are pluralized, they lose, by that 
means, their particularity, and become general names. 



LESSONS IN PARSING. 55 

brother is a name ; being a term by which an object is known : ge- 
neral ; it represents the class or kind [of relatives] to which the person 
denoted by it belongs : masculine, it denotes a male ; of the third person ; 
it denotes, not the speaker, cr writer, as such, but another object spoken 
of: in the singular form, the form which denotes but one, singular, bro- 
ther ; plural, brothers: regular ; its plural form is made by adding s to 
the singular : in the objective case ; it represents the person denoted by?it 
as being the object of the action of mind expressed by the transitive as- 
serter loves, on which it depends for sense. It answers the question 
whom' 1 : and depends on loves, just as the name books, in the first ring, 
plate I, answers the question what? and depends on the asserter sell in 
the large link. 

for is a relative ; being a word used to show the relation existing be- 
tween the event of Maria's loving her brother, and his intelligence and 
virtue, (severally considered) as the cause of that fact or event. It is the 
connecting link that joins the two names, intelligence and virtue, to the 
other part of the sentence, and thereby represents the principles of mind 
and soul denoted by those words, as being related to, and connected 
with, the event or fact described [Maria's loving her brother], in the same 
manner that the relative to, in the first small link, plate I, exerts its in- 
fluence of relation. 

intelligence is a name ; being a term by which we distinguish, as an 
object, the combination of ideas existing within the grasp of the mind ; 
and which the mind has already, by investigation, made to become its 
own : general ; it represents a kind of objects : neuter ; it represents an 
object without sex : of the third person ; it denotes, not the speaker or 
writer, as such, but another object spoken of: defective ; it has not ap- 
propriate forms to mark singularity and plurality : of the first class ; it is 
always used in the singular sense ; in the ablative case; it represents the 
quality or state of mind denoted by it, as being the object of the relation 
expressed by the relative for, on which it depends for sense. It answers 
the question what 1 and depends on the relative for, just as the name 
gentlemen, in the third ring, plate I, answers the question whom 1 and 
depends on the relative for in the second small link. 

and is a connective ; it merely connects (without showing any relation) 
the name virtue with the name intelligence, and thereby gives it the same 
bearing and dependence, that the name intelligence , with which it is con- 
nected, has. 

virtue is parsed like intelligence, except that it is a regular name ; for, 
being connected by and with the name intelligence, it is, with that 
equally dependent on the relative for, and represents the quality of mind 
and heart as being equally, with the intelligence, the cause of Maria's 
loving her brother, who is represented as possessing these qualities. 

Lesson II. 

1. Heaven endows whatever man accepts the proffered 
bliss. 

2. Whatever man will adhere to strict principles of ho- 
nesty, will find his reward in himself. 



56 LESSONS IN PARSING. 

3. William takes, as an associate, whatever person he 
finds rising or risen in intellectual and moral worth. 

4. Walter's brother recovered from his sickness, but 
Henry's died. 

5. I love my own friends, and respect Joshua's. 

Note 1.— In the first three examples in this lesson, the adname what- 
evers are so used as to cause the names on which they depend to be in 
the twofold case, and thereby exerts a conneciive influence on the two 
parts of the sentence. In the first sentence, the name man is so used as 
to denote the object of the action expressed by the asserter endows, and 
depends for sense on that asserter, like the name books, in the first ring 
of plate I, depending on the asserter sell, and at the same time the same 
word denotes the person who is the subject of the remark [constituted by 
the name man and the words which follow it,] and has the asserter ac- 
cepts, depending on it for sense, just as the term /; in the staple, plate I, 
denotes the subject of remark, and has the asserter sell depending on it 
for sense. 

Note 2 — In the second sentence the name man is caused by the ad- 
name whatever to be twofold subjective case, from its denoting, of itself, 
one person as the subject of the two remarks ; and has, without the use 
of a simple connective, the two asserters shall adhere, and will find, de- 
pending on it for sense. 

Note 3. — In the third sentence the name person is seen in the twofold 
objective case. It represents the person who is denoted by it as the 
object of the action (figurative) expressed by the asserter takes, on which 
it depends for sense ; and, at the same time, represents the same person, 
as being the object of the action expressed by the asserter finds, on 
which it also depends for sense. He takes the same object that he finds. 

Note 4, — In the fourth sentence the name Henry's, as used, repre- 
sents the man Henry as having or possessing something, and thereby 
represents the possessive case. It also, as used, denotes the person, the 
brother that Henry has ; and represents that person as the subject of 
remark, [the one that died,] and has the asserter died depending on it for 
sense ; and thereby represents the subjective case : and from these two 
facts, unitedly considered, it is seen to be in the twofold case ; representing 
of itself the same ideas and relations that would have been represented by 
putting the words Henry's brother, where the term Henry's now stands. 

Note 5. — In the fifth sentence the name Joshua is so used as to be in 
the twofold case. It represents Joshua (the man) as having or possess- 
ing something ; and thereby represents the possessive case. It repre- 
sents also the friend of Joshua as the object of the action of mind ex- 
pressed by the asserter respect, on which the name Joshua's depends for 
sense, and thereby is seen in the objective case. From both facts unitedly 
considered it is seen in the twofold case. 

Lesson III. 

Lord : I hate vain thoughts ; but I love thy law. Thou 
art my hiding place, and my shield. I hope in thy pro- 



LESSONS IN PARSING, 57 

mises. The sun shall not smite me by day nor the moon 
by night. The Lord will preserve from evil. He will 
save my soul. He will lead me by his counsel, and after- 
ward receive me to glory. — Bible. 

Lesson IV. 

Our youth is like the dream of the hunter on the hill of 
heath. He sleeps in the mild beams of the sun : he 
awakes amidst the raging storm. Red lightnings fly 
around him : Trees shake their heads to the wind. He 
looks back with joy to the hour of the sun, and the plea- 
sant dreams of his rest.— Ossian. 

our is a substitute. It is a word used as a substitute for other words : 
simple ; it simply takes the place of the names of the speaker and others 
referred to : [The reference is doubtless to all mankind ; and by this 
is seen the advantage of a substitute in standing as a representative of 
very many words :] common ; it is a term which is common to both 
sexes, may mean either, yet can distinguish neither : of the tirst person; 
it denotes, by one word, the speaker or writer and those associated with 
him : in the plural form ; it is the form used to denote plurality : in the 
possessive case ; it is used to denote the possessors of something ; and 
depends for sense on the term youth, which denotes the object possessed; 
sustaining, to that name, the relation of the term my in the side link 
(page 50, to the name books in the ring on the same page.) 

youth is a name ; it is a term by which an idea is known : general ; 
it represents, as a kind, the period of man's existence which it denotes : 
neuter ; it represents an object without sex. [Youth, referring as in this 
example to a period of life, instead of persons living in that period, is 
neuter: but when, instead of the period of life, it means persons existing 
in that period, it is common :] of the third person ; it denotes, not the 
speaker, but another object spoken of: defective ; [when meaning time 
of life it is defective ; otherwise it is regular,] it has not appropriate 
forms to mark singularity and plurality ; it is of the first class of defec- 
tive names, being used [when denoting time of life merely] only in the 
singular sense : in the subjective case ; it represents the period of life 
(which it denotes,) as being the subject of remark, and has the asserter 
is depending on it for sense, in the same manner that the name James 
in the staple of plate II. has the asserter lives in the large link, de- 
pending on it for sense. 

IS is an asserter i beinar a part of snppnh which ascerta ; intransitive ; 
it conveys the idea of the mere existence of the period of life denoted by 
the name youth, and depends on that name for sense, in the same man- 
ner that the asserter lives in the large link of plate II, depends for sense 
on James in the staple of the same plate. [Like the dream is an appen- 
dant phrase. — See plate II. J 

like is a relative ; it shows the relation, considered with respect to 
similarity of circumstance or character, existing between the period of 
life denoted by the term youth, and the condition or state of the hunters 



58 LESSONS IN PARSING. 

mind, denoted by the term dream. It is, in the sentence, the connecting 
link between the name dream and the preceding part of the sentence, 
acting like near in the first small link of plate II. 

the is an adname ; it is added or joined to the name dreamy to show 
how the state of mind denoted by it is to be regarded ; referring to his 
dream when he was situated as particularly described ; (on the hill, and 
in the warmth of the sun,) it belongs to, and depends on the name 
dream, that denotes the object, to which the word the as an adname re- 
fers ; in the same manner that the word the in the first side link of plate 
II, depends on the name house in the second ring. 

dream is a name ; it is a term by which a state or condition of mind, 
as an object, is known : general ; it is the name of a kind : neuter ; it repre- 
sents an object without sex : it is of the third person ; it denotes not the 
speaker as such, but another object spoken of. It is in the singular 
form; it denotes but one : regular ; it forms its plural by adding s: in the 
objective case ; it denotes the object of relation expressed by the relative 
like, on which it depends for sense, in the same manner as the term 
house, in the first ring of plate II, depends on the relative near, in the 
first small link of the same plate. [Of the hunter is an appendant phrase. 
See plate II.] 

of is a relative ; showing the relation existing between the dream, 
as one object, and the man denoted by the name hunter, as another : 
showing the dream as pertaining and belonging to him, [being his.] It 
is the connecting link of the sentence, which joins the name hunter to 
the part of the sentence before it, in the same manner that the word of, 
in the second small link of plate II, joins the name Seth to the preceding 
part of the sentence. 

the is an adname, being joined to the name hunter to make the refer- 
ence more particular to the man as in the condition or circumstances de- 
scribed : it belongs to, and depends on, the name hunter, denoting the 
man to whom the particular reference is made ; like the adname the, as 
used in the side links of plate II. 

hunter is a name ; being a term by which a thing or object is known: 
general ; it represents the class or kind to which the person denoted by 
it belongs : masculine ; it denotes that a male is meant : [The feminine 
name is huntress,] of the third person ; it denotes not the speaker, as 
such, but some other object spoken of: in the singular form ; it denotes 
but one :— singular, hunter ; plural, hunters — it is regular ; it is made 
plural by adding s to the singular form : in the objective case ; denoting, 
as an object of relation to the dream, the man, whose dream is referred 
to : it depends for sense on the relative of, in the same manner that the 
name Seth, in the second ring of plate II, depends on the relative of in 
the second of the small links of the same plate. [On the hill is an ap- 
pendant phrase. — See plate II.] 

on is a relative ; showing the relation existing between the hunter, as 
described, as one object, and the elevation of land denoted by the term 
hill, as another, 

the is an adname, here used as though referring particularly to the 
hill as described ; the one having a hunter on it ; [otherwise the writer 
of the sentence would have made the sentence thus, " Our youth is like 
the dream of a hunter on a hill" It belongs to and depends on the name 



LESSONS IN PARSING. 59 

UK. denoting, as the object, the elevation of land to which the as an a,? 
name refers; ln the same manner that the adnames in the side inks o'f 

on h "in'hetf exWbitS th ,? re 'f °" "etween'that and the m „ be n^ 

Z VtlF mZr th3t th ° n f me f y de P ends on the relaUvS 
*«, in plate 11 [O/ Aeart is an appendant phrase.— See nlate II 1 

annT "h^tT ! / h ° wi °" lhe r "' a,i * n ^ween he hln.Ts onelbiect 

Lesson V. 

When will Ossian's youth return? When will his ear 
dehgh in the sound of arms. When shall I, like Oscar 
travel In the ]lght of m gteeL Ye Co nar ; com e 

with your streams and listen to the voice of Ossian The 

3r r Ss.^L! Un ' ^ **"* *■ M the ^ 

Lesson VL 

AL h h- As T an CamC down ,ike a ^olf on* the fold, 
And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold : 

Wh.lfr.Kr ° f thC SpearS WaS Iike stars °" *e sea, 
^ hen the blue waves roll nightly on deep Galilee." 

r un Byron. 

I When, as used in the last line, is a connective, from its 
joining that line to the other part of the sentence a"d a 

SS2T its referring t0 time ; il 1S **&&&£ 

In the following exercises as they occur in the book 
let the pupil remember that the sentences offered, asS 
neous, for correction, and signed by the initials M.,K B 
», and W., are written according to the principles of the 

for upon. ^ h6le US6d ' f ° r S tam ™ ti °* correctness, should be exchanged 



60 LESSONS IN PARSING. 

theories of Murray, Kirkham, Goold Brown, and Smith, 
and that of Joseph W. Wright [wrong,] who, after having 
declaimed with great ardor against the others, has adopted 
almost ail of their errors and absurdities, and manu-fac- 
iured many of a still worse character that are, and, I think, 
always must be, peculiarly his own. By keeping these 
principles constantly in view, the learner will see how 
their theories vary from the principles of the language 
correctly spoken or written. 

Lesson VII. 

[For correction.] 

Epaminondas's death and fame John Huestis's sickness 
The-bes's rise and fall The witness's deposition 

Archimedes's tomb Tom Hughes's apprehension 

Socrates'ssufferingand death Mr. Williams's oration 
Aristides's banishment Dr. Dewees's writings 

Alcibiades's success Mr. Hastings's songster 

Themistoeles's exile and Gen. Cass's requisitions 

death Gov. Meigs's promptness and 

General Gates's command . valor 

General Knox's appointment Ulysses's strength 
James Otis's letters Sophocles's writings 

John Adams's inauguration General Shay s's insurrection 
Moses's ministers Felix's room 

Xerxes's defeat M. K. B. S. & W. 

Lesson VIIL 
[For correction and parsing.] 

John took his book and left Henry's book, William's 
book, and Maria's book. 

Maria's friend went to church, but Jane's friend staid at 
home. 

Walton's fruit was very good, but William's fruit was 
worthless. 

Selh lives in Zadok's house ; John in Henry's house ; 
and Franklin, Samuel's house. I study with Julia's bro^ 
ther, and Giles, with Horatio's brother.— M. &. B. S. 



SUBSTITUTES. 61 



CHAPTER V. 



SUBSTITUTES, 

What is a Substitute? 

It is a word substituted for a name, phrase, or sentence*, 
Of how many kinds are substitutes ? 
They are of four kinds ; Simple, Adname, Interrogative* 
and Connective. 

SIMPLE SUBSTITUTES. 

What is a Simple Substitute f 

It is a word which simply stands in the place of a nam^ 
phrase, or sentence, and which always acts the part of a 
substitute ; as, James was sick ; but he is now well ; John 
was thrown from his horse upon the pavement ; and he 
was severely injured by it. 

What words are used as simple substitutes? 

They are I, thou, he, she, and it, and their variations with 
respect to number and case ; myself, thyself, himself 
herself, and itself called emphatic substitutes, and 
their variations with respect to number ; and none, which 
is never varied, in form, and may be used in the singular 
or plural sense. 

DECLENSION OF SIMPLE SUBSTITUTES. ^ 

What is the declension of Simple Substitutes? 

It is changing their forms for the representation of 
objects with respect to number and case. Emphatic sub* 
.stitutes do not vary their forms on account of case. 

Examples. 

COMMON SUBSTITUTES. 
FIRST PERSON. 

Singular form. Plural form.. 

Subj. form, I, Subj. form, We, 

Poss. form, My or mine, Poss. form, Our, 

Obj. form, Me, Obj, form, Us, 

Indep. form, Me, Indep. form, We, 

Twofold form, Mine. Twofold form, Ours* 



62 



DECLENSION OF SIMPLE SUBSTXTtJTMiJL 



COMMON SUBSTITUTES. 
SECOND PERSON* 

Singular form. Plural form. 

Subj. Thou, Subj. Ye or you* 

Pos&. Thy or thine, Poss. Your, 

Obj. Thee, Obj. You, 

Indep. Thou, Indep. You, 

Twofold, thine, Twofold, Yours. 

N. B. — You, like defective names of the fifth class, is 
used in the singular as well as the plural sense ; though it 
requires, when used in the singular sense, the same form 
of the asserter that it requires when used in the plural. — 
See Appendix. 

THIRD PERSON. 



Masculine Substitutes. 
Singular form. 
Subj. He, 
Poss. His, 
Obj. Him, 
Indep. Him, 
Twofold, His. 

Feminine Substitutes,, 
Singular form. 
Subj. She, 
Poss. Her, 
Obj. Her, 
Indep. She, 
Twofold, Hers. 

Neuter Substitutes. 
Singular form. 
Subj. It, 
Poss. Its, 
Obj. It, 
Indep. 
Twofold, 



not used. 



Common Substitutes. 
Plural form. s 
Subj. They, 
Poss. Their, 
Obj. Them, 
Indep. They, 
Twofold, Theirs. 

Common Substitutes. 
Plural form. 
Subj. They, 
Poss. Their, 
Obj. Them, 
Indep. They, 
Twofold, Theirs. 

Common Substitutes. 
Plural form. 
Subj. They, 
Poss. Their, 
Obj. Them, 
Indep. They, 
Twofold, Theirs. 



A simple substitute used interrogatively or exclama- 
torily without an asserter, is in the independent case, 
though in the subjective form ; as, 



EMPHATIC AND ADNAME SUBSTITUTES. 63 

I doubtful; cheerless? J, afraid 
Of Moloch's altar — still-house shade? 
No ! though that hold was Satan's worst, 
And charged to crush me — -let it burst ! *■ 

I faint and sad I 7, I a slave ! 

Though offspring of the good and brave ! 

When is an Emphatic simple substitute to be used ? 

1. When we would represent as the object of action, in- 
fluence, or relation, the same person or thing that is repre- 
sented by another word, as being the subject of remark; 
as, John injured himself by studying too assiduously. I 
reasoned with myself. 

2. When it would give greater force to the expression 
by being used in the same relation to the sentence as 
another word preceding it, and denoting the same object ; 
as, John, himself, could have done the work better than it 
was done by his workman. 

Is own ever to be used in combination with a name or 
substitute, and as a part of it to constitute it emphatic ? 

Yes : when we would mark by that means more distinctly 
and forcibly what really belongs to the object denoted by 
the combination ; as, John hires, for the use of his family, 
one of William's houses, and rents to Henry his own house, 

'Twas God's own grace that saved my soul 
From sinking in despair. 

Its most common and important use, however, is to 
form, with greater strength, the twofold case of the simple 
substitute ; as, 

The deadliest wounds with which we bleed, 

Our erimes inflict alone ; 
Man's mercies from God's hand, proceed ; 

His miseries, from his own. 

Hannah More. 

" O give me tears for others' woes ; 
But firmness 'midst my own!" 

ADNAME SUBSTITUTE. 

What is an Adname Substitute 1 

It is an adname that becomes a substitute by the omis- 



64 RECIPROCAL AND INTERROGATIVE SUBSTITUTES. 

sion of the name denoting the object, to which, as ai© 
adname, it refers; as, Two men shall be in the field, one 
shall be taken and the other, left. 

What other distinctive appellation have some of the 
adname substitutes .? 

The combinations each other and one another, are called 
reciprocal substitutes, from their denoting reciprocation ; 
as, They respected each other. 

In what cases may these combinations be used ? 

They may be used in any of the simple cases except the 
subjective ; as, They loved one another. They used each 
other's books. These w r ords may be used separately in 
the subjective case. They are then parsed like any other 
adname substitute i as, Each used the other's book. One 
struck another. 

When is an adname substitute to be used? 

Whenever, without injury to the clearness or perspi- 
cuity of a sentence it can express, in the adname form, the 
aense which would otherwise require the adname and a 
name ; as, John took five books and left three. Wise 
■men foresee the evils incident to human life ; but the good! 
have, in themselves, a refuge from them. 

What adnames are declined when they become adname 
substitutes? 

Other and another ; thus i. 

Singular. Plural. 

Subj. form, The other, Subj. form, Others, 

Poss. form, The other's [book] Poss. form, Others' [books J 

Obj. form, The other. Obj. form, Others. 

Singular* Plural. 

Subj. form, Another, > T , . . , . 

x> J r a .i, ' n it r It is not used in 

Poss. form, Another's [book] % , , , 

Obj. form, Another. ) tne plural iorm. 

What adnames may be used as adname substitutes ? 

All qualifying adnames that will respectively make 
sense when joined; only to names ; all assertive adnames^ 
and all specifying adnames, except a, an, the, every, very* 
and said. 

INTERROGATIVE SUBSTITUTES. 

What is an Interrogative Substitute ? 



INTERROGATIVE AND CONNECTIVE SUBSTITUTES. 65 

It is a word used instead of a name for the purpose of 
expressing interrogation ; or which acts the parts of an in- 
terrogative and a substitute at the same time ; as, Who can 
instruct the Ruler of the world ? Which is greater, the 
gift or the giver? [Which, as an interrogative substitute 
or as an adname, may refer to rational objects.] 

What words are used as interrogative substitutes! 

Who, which, and what* 

When is who to be used ? 

1. Whenever we would, by a general question, refer to 
a rational object that we expect to be designated in the an- 
swer, by a particular name, and without reference to any 
other distinction or quality ; as, Who gave the books to 
John? William. 

2. When in a pathetic appeal we would heighten the 
effect of conviction, and interrogate as though referring to 
rational objects without expecting an answer ; as, Who 
can resist the Almighty ? Who can escape from his pre- 
sence or his power? 

When is what to be used ? 

When we would interrogate, generally, respecting ob- 
jects, qualities, quantities, or characters; as, What did 
you meet ? A man and a carriage. What will consummate 
a man's destruction? Intemperance. What is Henry? 
An attentive student and a virtuous man. 

When is which to be used ? 

Whenever, without reference to the particular names or 
qualities, we would discriminate between objects (as objects 
merely) that are referred to, or brought to mind; as, 
Which do you prefer, Vice, with disgrace and misery ; or 
Virtue, with honor and felicity ? Whichis the direct route 
to Philadelphia ? 

In what cases may interrogative substitutes be used ? 

They may be used in all the simple cases ; and, in the 
possessive form, should be used in the twofold case, when 
they can, without introducing obscurity, represent both the 
possessor and the thing possessed ; as, William r I will 
borrow Henry's books. Whose will you take ? 

CONNECTIVE SUBSTITUTES. 

What is a Connective Substitute ? 

It is a word which is not only substituted for a name* 



66 USE OF CONNECTIVE SUBSTITUTES. 

phrase, or sentence, but which also connects sentences ; 
[It acts the parts of a Connective and a Substitute at the 
same time.} As James, who was sick, is now well. 

What words are used as connective substitutes 1 

They are who, which, that, whoever, whosoever, which- 
ever, whichsoever, what, whatever, and whatsoever. 

For what may who be substituted ? 

It may be substituted for the name of any rational ob- 
ject, or one represented as such ; but not for the name of 
an irrational object except when represented as rational ; 
as, John, who was absent, has returned. "Fair Hope, who 
points to distant years !" 

For what may which, as a connective substitute, be used ? 

It may be used as a substitute for phrases, or sentences, 
and the names of an irrational object, or one represented 
as such ; but not for the names of rational objects, except 
when represented as rational beings ; as, John studies the 
hook which I had bought. The first objects which I met 
were two huntsmen, who were traveling in pursuit of 
game. 

Note. General names of immaterial beings require which, as the con- 
nective substitute ; while their particular names require who ; as, th@ 
spirit which ; the angel which ; Gabriel who. 

Where is that as a connective substitute never to be 
used t 

It is never to be used to denote the object of relation ; 
as, Henry is the man that I purchased the books for. John 
is the person that I spoke to ; which sentences should' 
stand — Henry is the man for whom I purchased the books. 
John is the person whom I addressed, or to whom I spoke,. 

With this exception, where is that to be used in pre- 
ference to who or which 1; 

1. It should be used in preference to either of those 
words, where reference is had to rational or irrational 
objects, either conjointly or separately considered ; as,. 
The persons, carriage, and horses that went off the preci- 
pice, were found below. Neither John nor his dog; that 
went out yesterday morning, returned till midnight. 

2. When either of those words would occur after, and 
refer to, an interrogative substitute ; as, who, that has any 
sense of moral obligation, can stoop to profane swearing ? 



DECLENSION OF INTER. AND CON. SUBSTITUTES. 67 

3. It should be used in preference to ivho or which, 
when either of them would stand in the place of a preced- 
ing name, that has, depending on it, an interrogative ad- 
name, the adname same, or any adname in the superlative 
form, or a name that is preceded by* a modifier denoting 
precision or exactness. 

What man, that loves his neighbor, or venerates his 
God, can take advantage of his neighbor's distress? Wil- 
liam is the same man that I met in the morning. Seth is 
the most attentive student that I have in school. Henry 
has just the character that I thought he had. 

4. When a connective substitute is to be used in the 
subjective case before, an asserter that has, also, before it, 
a simple substitute in the same case, denoting the same 
subject ; or, in the objective case before an aSserter that 
has, also, a simple substitute denoting the same object, in 
the objective after it ; as, Richard is the man that I thought 
he was. Robert is the person for talent that I had under- 
stood him to be- 

In which cases are the connective substitutes used ? 

Who, which, and that may be used in the subjective, 
possessive, and objective ; and the remainder may be used 
in either of these simple cases, or in the twofold case. 
None of the connective substitutes, when in the possessive 
form, is ever in the twofold case* except the word whose ; 
as, I asked James for his horse and carriage. He said 
that he would not let them go ; but he would tell me whose 
I could obtain* 

Note. Here the word tvhose represents not only the possessor of a 
horse and carriage, but also them, as the objects possessed. 

DECLENSION OF INTERROGATIVE AISD CONNECTIVE 
SUBSTITUTES. 

What is the declension of interrogative and connective 
substitutes? 

It is changing their forms according to their representa- 
tion of case. They are not varied on account of person 
or number, and do not admit any distinction with respect 
to the sex of objects denoted by them. Interrogative sub- 
stitutes are declined in the same manner as connectives are. 
They are the same words differently applied. With the 
exception of who, whoever,, and whosoever, these two 



68 



CON. SUBSTITUTES, WHEN TO BE USED. 



classes of substitutes admit variation only to make the 
possessive form. Those three have an additional variation 
for the objective form. 



Subjective form. 

Who, 

Whoever, 

Whosoever, 

What, 

Whatever,. 

Whatsoever, 

Which, 

Whichever, 

Whichsoever, 



Examples. 

Possessive form. 
Whose, 
Whoseever, 
Whosesoever, 
Whose, 
Whoseever, 
Whosesoever, 
Whose, 
Whoseever, 
Whosesoever, 



Objective form* 
Whom, 
Whomever, 
Whomsoever, 
What, 
Whatever, 
Whatsoever, 
Which, 
Whichever, 
Whichsoever. 



When should connective substitutes be used ? 

Whenever they can be used, in the places of names or 
simple substitutes and connectives, so as not to injure the 
clearness of sentences ; and yet, by a closer union of the 
parts, give greater strength and dignity to the expression ; 
as, " He whom we should obey, is eternal." " The tree 
that thou cursedst is dead." The good which I desire 
above all others is practical wisdom. 

Note- The sense of these three examples is much more elegantly and 
forcibly expressed as the sentences stand, than it would have been by 
using names or simple substitutes, and a connective in the places that the 
connective substitutes occupy ; as, we should obey a certain Being ; and 
he is eternal : or. A certain Being is eternal ; and we should obey him. 
Thou cursedst a tree ; and it is dead. I desire a certain good above all 
things ; and it, or that good, is practical wisdom. • 

When should connective substitutes be- used in the two- 
fold case ? 

Whenever they would prevent, by that means, the disa- 
greeable repetition of words before used ; or, without ob- 
scuring or weakening a sentence, can render it more ele- 
gant than it would otherwise be ; as, I took five apples, and 
left three ; and John took what I had left. Whatever pu- 
rifies, fortifies also the heart. 

Note. This is much better expressed than it would have been by 
saying I took five apples, and left three : and John took the apples which 
I had left. The exercise of mind which purifies,, fortifies al&o the heart,, 



SUBSTITUTE PHRASE PARSING. 69 

Are connective substitutes ever used in a simple case in 
an indefiuite sense? 

Yes : as whomsoever you may prefer, I shall choose 
Seth as my associate. 

SUBSTITUTE PHRASE. 

What is a Substitute Phrase ? 

It is a combination of words used to express some fact, 
and sustaining, to the other parts of a sentence, the rela- 
tion of a name or substitute ; as, " To maintain a steady 
and unoroken mind amidst all the shocks of the world, 
marks a great and noble spirit." Living temperately and 
frugally, promotes both health and happiness. 

Note. To maintain and living, as here used, are assertive names. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

[A. few words in the following lessons are parsed for th© 
pupil. The remainder he must parse for himself.] 

Lesson I. 

John sold his house, and moved into mine. Maria bor- 
rowed my books, and lent hers. William ate my fruit, but 
kept his own. Walter and Seth : I will take my things* 
and leave yours. My friends took my umbrella, and left 
theirs ; for theirs was not sufficiently large to shelter them 
from the storm. 

mine, in the first sentence, is a substitute, [Pupil, tell why,] simple^ 
[tell why,] common, [tell why,} of the first person, [tell why,] in the 
singular form ; it denotes but one possessor : in the twofold case, from 
its sustaining a twofold relation to the sentence ; that is, it denotes the 
possessor of something, and thereby represents the possessive case ; and, 
at the same time, it represents the house, as the thing possessed, and as 
the object of relation expressed by the relative info, on which, from its 
objective relation to the sentence, the term mine depends for sense. 

Remember that words in the twofold case, always sustain as many 
relations, and the same relations, that would be sustained by the words 
whose places they so elegantly supply. 

Remember that a connective substitute immediately preceded by than y 
and followed by words denoting comparison, is always either in the pos- 
sessive case (and that case is easily distinguished) or in the objective, 
depending on than, as a relative ; but that, in all other circumstances, a 
connective substitute is in the same case, as the name or simple substi^. 
tute for which it stands, would be, if used. 



70 TWOFOLD CASE EXEMPLIFIED. 

When a compound sentence is presented, being connected in its parts 
by a connective substitute ; resolve it into two simple sentences ; each 
expressing some fact or event. Thus — John is the man whom I met 
yesterday. Here are two distinct facts represented. One is, John is a, 
or the man ; and the other is, I met him, or the man yesterday. Here 
it is seen, that the term him, if used, or man, if repeated, would be in the 
objective case depending on the asserter met, like the name books in the 
first ring of plate I, depending on sell in the large link. 

Then, as connective substitutes are in the same case as the words for 
which they stand, would be, if repeated, the connective substitute whom 
must be in the objective case, and depend on the asserter met. The only 
difference is that of position, not of relation ; as, while names and other 
substitutes, in simple affirmations, follow the asserters on which they 
depend, connective substitutes, from their office as connectives, come be- 
fore the asserters on which they depend ; between the two, when there 
are two in the compound sentence. 

" Pity the sorrows of a poor old man, 
Whose trembling limbs have borne him to your door." 

This, representing two distinct facts, would stand in two simple sen- 
tences, thus, 

Pity the sorrows of a poor old man. 

His (or the old man's) trembling limbs have borne him to your door. 

Here it is seen that the simple substitute, or the name for which whose 
stands, would be, if used in the possessive case, depending for sense on 
the name limbs, like my in the side link, plate I, depending on the term 
books, in the first ring. 

Then, as connective substitutes are used in the same case as the 
names or simple substitutes would be if repeated, the term whose must 
be in the possessive case depending on the same name limbs. 

I met a man who was traveling towards Utica. Here, by making 
two sentences of the one we shall see in what case who is. Thus — X 
met a man, is one sentence. He [or the man] was traveling towards 
Utica, is the other. He was traveling. This being parsed according to 
the principles illustrated by plate II, we should see the term he or man 
in the subjective case. We then know that who, as used above, is in the 
game case. 

EXEMPLIFICATION OF THE TWOFOLD CASE. 
Of Connective Substitutes. 

The person 

Who Whoever 

will do the work, will do the work, 

shall receive shall receive 

the reward. the reward. 

Whoever is, in this example, in the twofold subjective 
case s having will do and shall receive depending on it fop 



LESSONS IN PARSING. ?1 

s^tise. It is the only word used to denote the subject of 
remark, and is the common dependence of the two as- 
serters. 

John took John took 

the books what 

which had been left, 

had been left. 
What here sustains to the sentence the relation of the 
objective case, by its denoting, like "books" the objects 
of the action expressed by the asserter took, on which it 
depends for sense ; and also the relation of the subjective 
case, by its representing the books as the subject of remark, 
having the asserter had been left, depending on it for 
sense. 

John took John took 

the books what 

which I 

I had left. had left. 

What, in this example, is in the twofold objective ; oc* 
curring, like the word books, which it represents, after the 
transitive asserter took, on which it depends for sense ; and 
like the word which, that it also represents, occurring be- 
fore the transitive asserter had left, on which it also de- 
pends for sense. 

Lesson II. 

Two men shall be in the field : one shail be taken and 
the other, left. God despiseth the proud, but giveth grace 
to the humble. Two are better than one ; because they 
have a good reward for their labor. The wicked are over- 
thrown, and are not; but the house of the righteous shall 
stand. The wicked are driven away in their wickedness ; 
but the righteous have hope in their death. 

one, in the latter part of the first sentence, is an adname substitute V 
like an adname it denotes number, and like a substitute it stands in the 
place of a name [the namem^n], on which it would, as a mere adname, 
depend, and to which it would belong. It is of the third person ; de- 
noting, not the speaker or writer as such, but another object spoken of : 
in the singular form ; the form which denotes but one ; in the subjective 
case, it denotes the person who is the subject of remark : like the term 
I, in the staple of plate I, and has the asserter shall be taken, depending 
on it for sense, 



72 LESSONS IN PARSING. 

other is parsed in the same manner ; having left, as a representative 
of shall be left, depending on it for sense. 

Note. — Adnames may be used in either the singular or plural sense, 
when they have nothing of themselves to mark the distinction. 

Lesson III. 

Who is so blind in thought, that he expects happiness 
In any thing but duty ? Who has an arm like God's 1 
Who can fight against him ? Whom can I find that will 
support me ? Whose arm will protect me ? Which is the 
way of life ? What can bring relief to the guilty mind ? 
"What shall I do to be saved?" To whom shall we go ? 
Thou hast the words of eternal life. 

Note. — In parsing interrogative substitutes, you may remember that 
they do not mark the distinctions of sex, person, or number. Case is 
their only property, and in this they always sustain the same re- 
lation that would be sustained by the names for which they stand, if 
those names were repeated. 

Lesson IV. 

He that is slow in anger, is better than the mighty. He 
that ruleth his spirit, is better than he that taketh a city. 
He that hath no rule over his own spirit, is like a city 
broken down and without walls. They who give to the 
poor shall not lack: but they that turn their eyes from 
suffering, shall have many a curse.— Bible. 

Lesson V. 

Whoever is partner with a thief, hateth his own soul. 
Whoever mocketh the poor, reproacheth his Maker; and 
whoever is glad at their calamities, shall not go unpun- 
ished. The Lord loveth whomsoever he correcteth ; as the 
father correcteth the son in whom he delighteth. The way 
of the wicked is an abomination to the Lord ; but he loveth 
whomsoever followeth after righteousness. — Bible. 

Lesson VI. 
[For correction and parsing.] 

[These sentences are written according to the principles 
of Etymology and Syntax, as given in the theories of those 
whose initials are subscribed. The words in italics are, 
nevertheless, wrong.] 



CORRECTION AND PARSING. 73 

I took my book, and John took his hook. John sold 
his horse, but I kept my horse. William's farm is situated 
five miles beyond my farm. Maria borrowed my book 
and lent her book. Seth and John : if you will attend to 
your business, William and I will attend to our business. 
Henry: Julia and Jane left their umbrella, and took your 
umbrella, because your umbrella was larger than their 
umbrella.— M. K. B. S. & W. 

Lesson VIL 

[For correction and parsing. J 

[These sentences are written in exact accordance with 
the declension of pronouns [substitutes] and the rules for 
governing the possessive case as given by my favorite 
authors !] 

John took my book and left his book. I lent my book 
to Maria and she lent me hers book. Seth ; if Rufus will 
do his work, let us do ours work. James : if you will 
visit my school to-day, I will visit yours school to-morrow. 
My friends left theirs carriage, and took my carriage, be- 
cause my carriage was better than theirs carriage ; theirs 
carriage having been broken before they called for my 
carriage.— m. K. B. S. & W. " 

Lesson VIII. 

[For correction and parsing.] 

John bought ten apples, and afterwards ate three ap- 
ples of them ; gave two apples of them to Henry ; three 
apples of them to Juliet; and reserved the remaining two 
apples for his brother, when he should return from school. 
These peaches are better than those peaches, for those 
peaches have been gathered longer than these peaches. — 
M. K. B. S. & W. 

Lesson IX. 

[For correction and parsing.] 

My friends brought with them from the East, five Canary 
birds. They gave one Canary bird of them to me : one 
Canary bird of them to Maria ; one Canary bird of their, 
to William ; and kept the remaining two Canary birds as 

7 



74 CONTRAST OF SENTENCES AND PARSING. 

their Canary birds, Henry : my two doves are prettier 
than your two doves ; but if it is your wish, I will give 
you my two doves for your two doves.— -M. K. B. S. & W* 

Lesson X. 

[For contrast of sentences and parsing.] 

[In the following examples the first sentence of each, 
couplet stands correct, and as it must be parsed, according 
to this work r while the last of each couplet stands as it must 
be parsed according to the theories of M. K. B. S. &, W.] 

1. "Whatever purifies, fortifies also the heart." — That 
[thing] or the thing which purifies, fortifies also the heart* 
2. u Whatever promotes and strengthens virtue ; whatever 
calms and regulates the passions, is a source of happi- 
ness." — That [thing] or the thing which promotes and 
strengthens virtue ; that [thing] or the thing which calms 
and regulates the passions, is a source of happiness. 3. 
" Our ignorance of what is to come, and of what is really 
good or evil, should correct anxiety about worldly suc- 
cess." — Our ignorance of that [thing] or the thing which 
is to come, and of that thing or the thing %ohich is really 
good or evil, should correct anxiety about worldly success* 
4. Education is, to a human soul, what sculpture is to a 
block of marble. — Education is that thing or the thing to a 
human soul, sculpture is which or which thing to a block 
of marble ! ! 

Lesson XI. 

[For contrast of sentences and parsing.] 

1. Whatever would induce a laxity in public or private 
morals, or indifference to guilt and wretchedness, should 
be regarded as the deadly Sirocco. That thing or the 
thing which would induce a laxity in public or private 
morals, or indifference to guilt and wretchedness, should 
be regarded as the deadly Sirocco. 2. Whatever debases 
a man in his own estimation, considered with respect to 
his fellow-creatures, throws him near the vortex of degra- 
dation and despair. That thing or the thing which debases 
a man in his own estimation, cons dered with respect to 
his fellow*creatures, throws him near the vortex of de- 



Contrast of sentences and parsing. 75 

gradation and despair. 3. Whatever humbles a man in 
view of his weakness and vileness, before his Maker, tends 
to increase his strength, with his moral purity. That thing, 
or the thing ', which humbles a man in view of his own 
weakness before his Maker, tends to increase his strength, 
with his moral purity. 

[Enough of that thing or the thing ! Grammarians of the old school 
must deem themselves peculiarly fortunate in having a sovereign remedy 
in the words, that or the and thing which, for the evils of the "Compound 
relatives" not one of which was ever PARSED by these gramma- 
rians. Their carrying in the head, " the thing which" to help them over 
any difficulty that they may meet in books, must be like carrying one of 
St. Paul's ten thousand teeth ! in the pocket, to prevent a troublesome 
pain in the head : for it may be said of the word thing, as applied by 
the authors of the old school ; that whatever makes war or leads to peace ; 
whatever builds cities or desolates nations ; whatever makes a people 
ignorant or wise, wretched or blessed, X 9 (" the thing,") do all thes§ 
things.] 

Lesson XIII. 
John took his bodk, and left my book. My book was 
left; but John's book was taken. Theophiins borrowed a 
book of Maria and left his book at his store. &eih bought 
his family library for five hundred dollars ; though I got 
my family library for four hundred dollars. William is 
as much dependent for a livelihood on his exertions as 1 
am on my exertions. Our friends went away, taking by 
accident, John's cloak and JSeth's cloak, and leaving their 
cloaks. 

Lesson XIV. 
I hurt me by studying too intensely. James injured 
Mm by inattention to business. Richard and Zadok saw 
them abandoned by those who had once patronized them 
very liberally. Giles and I relieved us by untiring indus- 
try and skill. Maria acquitted her well in recitation. 
The Canary bird hurt it, by becoming entangled in the 
frame of the cage. " Be not over wise, lest thou shouldst 
destroy" thee. "I have seen the wicked in great power 
and spreading " him " like a green bay tree,"—- M. K.. S* 
& W. 

Lesson XV, 

I deliberated with me on the subject of my relations and 
duties to man. I said to me-^evexy man should provide 



76 CONTRAST OF SENTENCES AND PARSING. 

for him and his family ; that the whole world may be pro- 
Tided for ; yet he should not confine his views of life to 
him, in such a manner as to prevent his neighbor from 
prospering. Nay, more ! He should so conduct his af- 
fairs in securing the comforts of life to him, as to assist, 
at the same time, his fellow-creatures, in adding to their 
felicity. The avaricious man looks with an envious eye 
upon the success of his neighbors, and values their abun- 
dance only so far as he has a prospect of despoiling them 
for enriehing him.- — M. K. S. & W* 

Lesson XVI, 

John and me intend to visit Utica this spring. Solo- 
mon asserted that he had seen Julius and / at Trenton 
falls : but I contended that Julius and me were at Niagara 
falls, when Solomon saw us. •* Friend ;" must thee go 
home before evening? Henry and thee should call oftener. 
William spoke to Jane and /concerning our engagement 
with Lemuel and Juliet. He said I and her must visit him 
soon* 

Lesson XVII. 

Though, in time of public distress, arising from war, 
pestilence, or famine,the great men and the good men, the 
just men and the vile men must ofttimes alike stand or 
fall ; yet this distress, however great, cannot destroy the 
treasures of felicity, which the wise persons and good per- 
sons have abundantly stored within them. The hardy men 
and brave men of a country or community have to protect 
them; and in so doing, they necessarily defend the weak 
persons and timid persons. The virtuous persons, and 
industrious persons, though poor, are more deserving of 
honour and confidence than the vicious persons or indo- 
lent persons ; though they are rich. — M. K. B. S. & W. 

Lesson XVIII. 

The man and team which I met were traveling East. 
The cattle and men whom I met were moving at a rapid 
pace. " Here am I, and the children which thou hast 
given. " Our Father which art in heaven." "I am the 
Lord which made Heaven and Earth." Nicodemus was the 



ASSERTERS. 77 

same man which had come to Jesus by night. James is 
just the person whom I met returning from the concert. 
Helen is the very person who I thought she was. James 
is just the adept in music whom I had understood him to be* 

Lesson XIX. 

John ; take, as your company, to Buffalo, whosoever 
you choose. I will tell you ivho I would take. Who did 
James engage to do his printing? Whomsoever shall do 
mine, will be puzzled in reading the manuscript ; which is 
a great disgrace to me William, the friend which I saw 
at Harlem said he would go with Henry and I: but Henry 
and me, after deliberating awhile, thought it would be bet- 
ter to decline his offer : for whoever we shall take, we 
should like to have more disposed to learn from nature, 
than to display himself. 

Lesson XX. 

Maria told me who I should see coming into town with 
she and Henry. Seth associates only with the intelligent 
and virtuous persons ; while he pities and yet shuns the 
vile persons which he never meets but with feelings of min- 
gled disgust and sorrow. Whoever he sees in distress he 
is willing to relieve ; but is careful not to let hi& benevo- 
lence towards the unfortunate who he relieves, encou-* 
rage them to continuance in idleness and dissipation, 

CHAPTER VI. 

ASSERTERS, 

"What is an Asserter ? 

It is the part of speech which asserts, [existence, action, 
effect;] or which can be so used, with only a name or sim- 
ple substitute, as to constitute, with that, an assertion con- 
cerning the object denoted by it ; as I am ; I write ; John 
walks ; he reads. 

Of how many primary kinds are asserters ? 

They are of two kinds ; Principal and Auxiliary ; and 
some of them are ca^ed Substitute asserters ; as distin- 
guished by their office or use from those which are mere 
asserters. Besides these, tnere are nominal asserters* 

called nominalsy which are asserters only in name, being; 

7# 



78 ASSERTERS. 

the names of actions or facts denoted by asserters. They 
have neither mode nor tense, and are not, in the following 
treatise, included in the class called asserters, except when 
particularly noticed as such. They are parsed like other 
names. 

What is a Principal asserter? 

It is one which, of itself, conveys the idea of the exist- 
ence, action, or influence of some person or thing denoted 
by the word on which it depends for sense; as I am; I 
love ; William writes ; George studies. 

What is an Auxiliary asserter ? 

It is one which, of itself, does not convey the idea of 
existence, action, or influence of the subject of remark ; 
but is joined to a principal to vary its meaning, and forms, 
with the principal, but one asserter ; as, I shall love. Wil- 
liam has written. George will study. 

What is a Substitute asserter? 

It is either an auxiliary or principal, which is so used 
in reference to a preceding sentence, as to express what, 
as a full asserter, it would express, and to act as a substi- 
tute for a combination of words that must otherwise have 
been used in connexion with it ; as, though John cannot 
go to Buffalo, finish my business, and return in six days, 
yet Henry can. Though Richard has been ruined in cha- 
racter and fortune by vile associates, yet William has not. 

Note. — Here it is seen that the substitute asserter can, not only ex- 
presses all that the full asserter can go would have expressed, but also 
all that could have been expressed by saying, " Can go to Buffalo, finish 
my business, and return in six days." So also it is with has, in the next 
example. It not only expresses what, as a full asserter, has been ruined^ 
it would have expressed, but also what would have been expressed by 
speaking or writing every word in that example after the asserter has 
been ruined. The modifier not is used with the substitute asserter has 
to throw its negative influence over the sense expressed by it. 

How are Principal asserters distinguished with respect 
to their relation to names and substitutes, and the objects 
denoted by them ? 

They are distinguished as Intransitive, Transitive, and 
Receptive. They are used in two particularities of form ; 
the Completive and the Continuative : and are also called 
Regular, Irregular, and Defective. 

What is an Intransitive asserter ? 

It is one which represents the subject of remark as 



MODE. 79 

merely existing ; or as acting without affecting another ob- 
ject ; as, time is. John walks. Truth will prevail. 

What does the Transitive asserter represent? 

It represents an action or influence of the subject of re- 
mark that extends to, and affects, some object (either really 
or figuratively) so as to change its condition, or represent 
it in a new relation ; as, God created the world. Henry 
worships his Creator. Cain killed Abel. 

What does the Receptive asserter represent ? 

It represents the subject of remark as receiving an ac- 
tion or influence which is extended to it, and by which it 
is changed in its condition, or represented in a new rela- 
tion ; as, The world was created. The Creator is worship- 
ped* Abel was killed. 

Note. — The Receptive asserter necessarily implies some operative 
cause to exert the influence, or effect the change ; for, as the world was 
created, we know that some being must have been the creating cause. 
If the Creator is worshipped, he must be worshipped by some intellectual 
being, that exercises toward him the thought and feeling called worship. 
If Abel was killed, some active cause must have produced his death. 

What are the properties or attributes of asserters ? 

Mode and Tense, the divisions of each of which are 
named from their chief or general use ; not from what they 
may be made to express. 

MODE. 

What is Mode? 

It is a medium of distinction including both the form of 
the asserter, and the manner in which it is used, for ex- 
pressing a fact or event. 

In how many modes are asserters used? 

Five ; the Declarative, Inferential, Interrogative, Com- 
manding, and the Unlimited. 

What does the Declarative mode express? 

Declaration : or it is used with the word in the subjec- 
tive case on which the asserter depends, to declare that the 
fact denoted by the principal asserter has been, is, or shall 
or will be ; [hereafter ;] as, James wrote. He writes or is 
writing. He shall write or will write. Thou lovest me. 

What does the Inferential mode express? 

It expresses by inference, the idea of possibility or con- 
tingency, liberty, power, will, necessity, or obligation, in 



80 MODE. 

relation to the fact denoted by the principal asserter; [it 
cannot declare the fact to have been, or to be now, or here- 
after ;] as John might have written. He may be writing. 
He can wiite. He may write [to-morrow]. 

Note. — By contrasting these two modes, it will be perceived that 
while the declarative declares that the act of writing (the fact denoted by 
the principal asserter) has been performed ; is being, or will be, perform- 
ed ; the inferential does not so express the ideas in relation to the act of 
writing ; does not declare that the writing (the fact denoted by the prin- 
cipal asserter) has been done, is being done ; or ever will be done ; but only 
gives grounds for inferring liberty or opportunity, possibility, or power, 
concerning the act of writing. 

What does the Interrogative mode express? 

Interrogation : or, it is the form, or position, of an asserter, 
which, taken only with a name, or simple substitute, would 
constitute an interrogation: as, Has John written? Will 
he write 1 Can he write ? Shovld he write ? 

Note. — It is seen by reference to the examples given to illustrate 
these three modes, that in each of the first two modes, the word in the 
subjective case, stands first in the sentence, and the asserter next ; as 
John writes ; [declarative ;] John can write ; [inferential ;] while in the 
interrogative mode the principal asserter, when it has no auxiliary, stands 
first in the sentence, and the word in the subjective case, next ; as, 
Lovest thou me 1 and when there is an auxiliary with the principal, the 
auxiliary stands first, then the word in the subjective case, and then the 
principal asserter ; as, Has John written ? Will John write ? Can he 
write ? Where there is more than one auxiliary, only the first is placed 
before the word in the subjective case, to make the interrogative mode ; 
as, Will John have written ? Should he have written ? The Interrogative 
mode may be used to express wish : as, u O may I pant for thee in each 
desire." 

What does the Commanding mode express? 

Command. It may also be used to express desire, en- 
treaty, exhortation, or permission ; as, Children, study. 
" Love your enemies." " Do good to those that hate 
you." 

Why is the Unlimited mode so called? 

Because it is used independently of the limiting influ- 
ence exerted on other modes, in respect to the person, 
form, and case, of the word to which it refers, and on 
which it depends ; as, I saw John adjust his cloak, pre- 
paring to go home. He had been requested to write. 

The Commanding and the Unlimited mode maybe used 
in an absolute sense, or without a name or substitute on 



TENSE. 81 

which it can depend; when there is a general address or 
reference to the fact denoted by the asserter ; as, " Re- 
member the Sabbath day to keep it holy." 

How many distinctions of form does it admit? 

Two ; the Dependent and the Independent. 

What is the Dependent form of the unlimited mode ? 

It is the form which is always used after another as- 
serter on which [as well as on a name or substitute] it de- 
pends for sense ; both with respect to time and the fact ex- 
pressed ; as, I told John to go home. I had seen him on 
his return to visit his friends. [The terra asserter used 
in this definition comprises the nominate as defined on 
page 77.] 

What is the Independent form ? 

It is the form which may be used independently of a 
preceding asserter, to indicate some fact as admitted or 
conceded ; or to show cause of the occurrence of a suc- 
ceeding fact or event ; as, John having returned from the 
west I called to see him. James being sick I remained 
with him. Seth, injured by overturning his carriage, 
returned to the inn. 

Is this form, which is called independent, ever used in a 
dependent sense or relation ? 

Yes : when depending on a word in the objective case, 
it also depends on a preceding asserter ; as, I saw John 
injured by falling from his horse ; and saw him carried 
home. 

TENSE. 

What is Tense ? 

It is the form in which an asserter is used to represent 
a fact or event with respect to time. 

In how many tenses are asserters used ? 

They are used in seven : the Prior-past, the Indefinite- 
past, Prior-present, Present, Prior-future, Indefinite-future, 
and the Indefinite ; all of which, except when otherwise 
particularly directed, are to be used, severally, to express 
such facts as correspend with their respective names and 
definitions. 

What is the Prior-past tense 'I 

It is the form used to denote the occurrence of a past 
event, prior to some other past event or past time ; as, 



82 TENSES. 

Morgan had crossed the river, when Cornwallis appeared 
on the opposite shore. 

What is the Indefinite-past tense? 

It is the form used to denote the occurrence of a past 
event, as indefinitely past; as, John went home. James 
was sick. Henry spoke well. 

What is the Prior-present tense? 

It is the form used to denote the occurrence of an event, 
as though immediately prior to the present time ; as, The 
Lord gave, and has taken away. The children have re- 
turned from school. 

What is the Present tense? 

It is the form used to denote the occurrence of an event, 
at the present time ; as, / write. I am writing. Henry 
may be suffering from sickness. 

What is the Prior-future tense? 

It is the form used to denote the occurrence of a future 
event, prior to some other future event or future time ; as, 
John will have been absent three days, ere his departure 
will be known. 

What is the Indefinite-future tense? 

It is the form used to denote the occurrence of a future 
event, as indefinitely future ; as, The sun will rise. We 
shall see our friends again. 

What is the Indefinite tense? 

It is the form used to represent an event as indefinite 
with respect to time ; as, If John could do the work, he 
would do it. I requested Henry to write to me, telling 
me of his success while thus engaged. 

[The Indefinite tense of the Completive form of the Un- 
limited mode Dependent is used after words expressing an 
affection of the mind, in showing the cause which affects it ; 
as, I rejoiced to find Henry well. I was sorry to see Wil- 
liam in trouble. In other circumstances it is used to show 
design ; as, I went to Baltimore to visit Richard, md pur- 
chase goods.] 

THE TENSES USED IN DIFFERENT MODES. 

How many tenses are used in the Declarative mode, and 
the Interrogative, formed from the Declarative ? 
Six — all but the Indefinite tense, 



OTHER FORMS OF THE ASSERTER. 83 

How many are used in the Inferential mode, or the In- 
terrogative formed from the Inferential ? 

Four — the Prior-past, Indefinite, Prior-present, and the 
Present. 

How many tenses are used in the Commanding mode? 

Only one, the Present tense. 

How many tenses are used in the Unlimited mode ? 

Two — the Prior-past and the Indefinite? 

OTHER FORMS OF THE ASSERTER. 

What is the primary form of an Asserter? 

It is that which it has when used without an auxiliary, 
in the Present tense of the Declarative mode, when follow- 
ing the substitute, I, and depending on it for sense ; as, I 
love ; I walk. 

What form of the asserter is called Singular? 

That which it assumes when referring to a name or sub- 
stitute of the third person, and in the singular form ; as 
James thinks ; he speaks. 

What form of the asserter is called Plural ? 

That which it assumes when referring to a plural name 
or substitute ; as, The pupils think; they speak. [There 
is, however, a dissimilarity between the singular and the 
plural only in a few particular places, as will be seen by 
the following inflections. In all others the singular and 
the plural form of names and substitutes have a common 
form of the asserter.] 

Why is the Completive form of the asserter so called? 
and when should it be used? 

It is so called because it denotes the completion of a fact 
or event at the time referred ; except in the present tense ; 
as, James wrote a letter while I was with him. He will 
write again to-morrow. 

It should be used when we would represent the fact as 
completed at, or in the time referred to, except when it is 
in the present, in which form it must be used to denote an 
event that continues its occurrence with only occasional 
or regular intermissions, as The sun rises and sets without 
our agency. The epicure eats and drinks, revels and 
sleeps, with no higher aim than the gratification of his ani- 
mal appetites. John may go home to-day or wait till to- 
morrow ; just as he chooses. 



84 OTHER FORMS OF THE ASSERTER. 

The present tense of the asserter am or be, denotes 
present existence, and may be applied to other asserters, 
to denote present progression, or continuance of events. 

Why is the Continuative form so called, and when should 
it be used? 

It is so called because it denotes the continuance or pro- 
gression of an event at the time referred to ; and should be 
used when we would describe, particularly, an event as 
being continued at or in the time referred to ; as, John 
was writing' when I left him. He will be writing till to- 
morrow. Henry may be suffering from sickness. 

What asserters are called Regular? 

Those which, in the past tenses, have d added to the 
primary form of an asserter which ends in e, and ed added 
to the primary form not ending in e ; as, Primary form, I 
love.. I walk. Past tenses — I had \ov-ed, I had walk-eeZ, 
I walk-ed, I have lov-ed, I have wzlk-ed. 

What asserters are called Irregular ? 

Those which have not, in the past tenses, the addition of 
d to a primary form ending in e, or ed to a primary ending 
in any other letter; as, Primary form, I write, I speak. 
Past tenses — I had writ-ten. I had sipok-en. I wrote, 
spoke. I have writ-ten. I have spok-era. 

What is a Defective asserter ? 

It is a principal asserter that cannot properly be used in 
all the different modes and tenses ; as, John, beware of 
the allurements of vice. " It is not more than justice, 
quoth the former." 

F Note. — The learner will readily perceive what an awkward thought 
would be produced in a listener by hearing a person say, I had bewared, 
thou hadst bewared^ he had bewared ; or I had quothed, thou hadst quothed y 
he had quothed. Neither of which expressions is allowable in grammar. 



INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 85 

Inflection of the Irregular Asserter Am or Be* 

Declarative Mode. 
Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. I had been, 1 per. We had been, 

2 per. Thou hadst been,* 2 per. Ye or you had been, 

3 per. He, she or it had been, 3 per. They had been. 

Indefinite-past Tense. 

Singular. Plural* 

1 per- I was, 1 per. We were, 

2 per. Thou wast or wert, 2 per. Ye or you were, 

3 per. He, &c. was,f 3 per. They were. 

Prior-present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I have been, 1 per, We have been, 

2 per. Thou hast been, 2 per. Ye or you have been, 

3 per. He hath or has been, 3 per. They have been. 

Present Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1 per. I am, 1 per. We are, 

2 per. Thou art, 2 per. Ye or you are, 

3 per. He is, 3 per. They are. 

* In ordinary discourse you, -with the plural form of the asserter, is to 
t>e used, in preference to thou, and the form which that requires after it; 
but in an address to the Diety, thou should be used, with its own form 
of the asserter. [See, in the " Rules for the use of auxiliaries," and 
" Rules for the formation of principal asserters," the form belonging to 
thou.] The Quakers, or " Friends," however, use thou, and it* attendant 
form of the asserter, in common conversation. For their benefit thou is 
given, in this work, in all the varieties of inflection; (in some of which 
it could not properly be used in an address to the Diety ;) for they err 
most egregiously in the use of thou, with the form of the asserter which 
follows he or they, and are countenanced in their errors by G. Brown, 
who, instead of " disburdening the language of 144,000 useless distinc- 
tions," increases their number just 144,000. 

t As the feminine substitute she, and the neuter substitute it, have re- 
spectively the same form of the asserter that the masculine substitute 
he requires, the former two will not be repeated in the inflections. 

8 



86 JNPLECTrON OP ASSERTERS. 

Prior-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I shall or will have 1 per. We shall or will have 

been, been, 

2 per. Thou shalt or wilt 2 per. Ye or you shall or will 

have been, have been, 

3 per. He shall or will have 3 per. They shall or will have 

been, been. 

Indefinite-future Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. I shall or will be, 1 per. We shall or will be, 

2 per. Thou shalt or wilt 2 per. Ye or you shall or will 

be, be, 

3 per. He shall or will be, 3 per. They shall or will be, 

Interrogative Mode. 

Formed from the Declarativd. 

Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. Had I been ? 1 per. Had we been ? 

2 per. Hadst thou been ? 2 per. Had ye or you beenj 

3 per. Had he been ? 3 per. Had they been 1 

Indefinite-past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Was I ? 1 per. Were we ? 

2 per. Wast or wert thou ? 2 per. Were ye or you ? 

3 per. Was he ? 3 per. Were they ? 

Prior-present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Have I been ? 1 per. Have we been ? 

2 per. Hast thou been ? 2 per. Have ye or you been 1 

3 per. Has he, or hath he 3 per. Have they been ? 

been ? 

(Present Tense. 
Smgutar. Plural. 

1 per. Am I ? 1 per. Are we ? 

2 per. Art thou ? 2 per. Are ye or you ? 

3 per. Is he ? 3 per. Are they ? 



INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 87 

Prior-future Tense; 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Shall I, or will I have 1 per. Shall we, or will we 

been ? have been ? 

2 per. Shalt thou, or wilt 2 per. Shall ye or you, or will 

thou have been ? ye or you have been? 

3 per. Shall he, or will he 3 per. Shall they, or will they 

have been? have been? 

Indefinite-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Shall I, or will I be ? 1 per. Shall we, or will we be? 

2 per. Shalt thou, or wilt 2 per. Shall ye or you, or will 

thou be ? ye or you be ? 

3 per. Shall he, or will he 3 per. Shall they, or will they 

be? be? 

Inferential Mode. 
Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. I might, could, would 1 per. We might, could,would 

or should have been,* or should have been, 

2 per. Thou mightst, couldst, 2 per. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst or shouldst would or should have 

have been, been, 

3 per. He might, could, 3 per. They might, could, 

would or should have would or should have 

been, been. 

Indefinite Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I might, could, would 1 per. We might, could,would 

or should be,t or should be, 

2 per. Thou mightst, couldst, 2 per. Ye or you might, could, 
wouldst or shouldst be, would or should be, 

3 per. He might, could, 3 per. They might, could, 

would or should be, would or should be. 

* « Ought to have? is used as an auxiliary in the prior-past tense of 
this mode. 

t * Ought to, 1 is used as an auxiliary in the indefinite tense of thw 
made. 



88 INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 

Prior-present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

2 per. I may, can or must 1 per. We may, can or must 
have been, have been, 

2 per. Thou mayst, canst, or 2 per. Ye or you. may, can or 

must have been, must have been, 

3 per. He may, can or must 3 per. They may, can or must 

have been, have been. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I may, can or must 1 per. We may, can or must 

be, be, 

2 per. Thou mayst, canst or 2 per. Ye or you may, can or 

must be, must'be, 

3 per. He may, can or must 3 per. They may, can or must 

be* be. 

Interrogative Mode, 

Formed from the Inferential. 

Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. Might, could, would 1 per. Might, could, would or 

or should I have been % should we have been ? 

2 per. Mightst, couldst, 2 per. Might, could, would or 
wouldst or shouldst thou should ye or you have 
have been ? been? 

3 per. Might, could, would 3 per. Might, could, would or 

or should he have been ? should they have been ? 

Indefinite Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Might, could, would 1 per. Might, could, would or 

or should I be ? should we be ? 

2 per. Mightst, couldst, 2 per. Might, could, would or 
wouldst or shouldst thou should ye or you be 1 
be ? 

3 per. Might, could, would 3 per. Might, could, would or 

or should he be ? should they be ? 



INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 8» 

Prior-present Tense. 
Singular. Plural 

1 per. May, cfn or must I 1 per. May, can or must we 

have been t have been ■ 

2 per. Mayst, canst, or must 2 per. May, can or must ye or 
P thou have been ? you have been? 

3 per. May, can or must he 3 per. May, can or must they 
P have been? have been? 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. May, cfn or must I 1 per. May, can or must we 

be ? be ■ 

2 per. Mayst, canst or must 2 per. May, can or must ye or. 

thou be? „ y ° ube? nw 

3 per. May, can or must he 3 per. May, can or must they 

* be? be? 

Commanding Mode. 
Always in the Present Tense. 

Singular. ^ ural - . vo nr 

Be thou, or do thou be. Be ye or you, or do ye or 

you be. 

Unlimited Mode Dependent. 
Prior-past Tense. 
Completive form, To have been. 

Continuative form, [wanting.] 

Indefinite Tense. 
Completive form, To be. 

Continuative form, [wanting.l 

Unlimited Mode Independent. 
Prior-past Tense. 
Completive form, Having been. 

Continuative form, [wanting.] 

Indefinite Tense. 
Completive form, Been. [This word is not used except 
when preceded by the auxiliary have, or some of its va- 

riations.] . 

Continuative form, being. 

8* 



90 INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 

Inflection of the Regular Transitive Asserter, Love. 

Completive Form. 

Declarative Mode. 

Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. I had loved, 1 per. We had loved, 

2 per. Thou hadst loved, 2 per. Ye or you had loved ? 

3 per. He, had loved, 3 per. They had loved* 

Indefinite-past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I loved, or did love, 1 per. We loved f or did love* 

2 per. Thou lovedst, or didst 2 per. Ye or you loved, or did 

love, love, 

3 per. He loved,or did loved, 3 per.They loved, or did love. 

Prior-present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I have loved,. I per. We have loved, 

2 per. Thou hast loved, 2 per. Ye or you have loved* 

3 per. He hath or has loved, 3 per. They have loved. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I love, or do love, 1 per. We love, or do love, 

2 per. Thou lovest, or dost 2 per. Ye or you love, or do 

love, love, 

3 per. He loveth, or loves, 3 per. They love, or do love. 

or doth, or does love, 

Prior-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I shall or will have 1 per. We shall or will have 

loved, loved, 

2 per. Thou shalt or wilt 2 per. Ye or you shall or 

have loved, will have loved, 

3 per. He shall or will have 3 per. They shall or will 

loved, have loved. 

Indefinite-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I shall or will love, I per. We shall or will love, 

2 per. Thou shalt or wilt 2 per. Ye or you shall or 

love, will love, 

3 per. He shall or will love, 3per.They shall or will love., 



INFLECTION OF ASSERTER3. "i 

Interrogative Mode. 

Formed from the Declarative. 

Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitute*. 

1 per. Had I loved ? 1 per Had we loved ? 

2 11 Hadst thou loved t 8 per. Had ye or you loved ? 

3 per. Had he loved ? 3 per. Had they loved ? 

Indefinite-past Tense. 

Singular. T Plural. 

1 per. Loved°I, or did I 1 per. Loved we, or dm we 

love i love • 

2 per. Love'dst thou, or didst 2 per. Loved ye or you, or 

thou love i did y e or y° n loTC ,? , 

3 per. Loved he, or did he 3 per. Loved they, or did 
P . love? they love? 

Prior-present Tense. 

Singular. . P lur f , ? 

1 per Have I loved T 1 per. Have we loved ? 

2 per Hast thou loved? 2 per. Have ye or you loved? 

3 per. Has he, or hath he 3 per. Have they loved ? 

loved I 

Present Tense. 

1 per Lovflf or'do I love I 1 per. Love we,™ do we love? 

2 per! Lovest thou, or dost 2 per. Love ye or you or do 
*pei.juiu ye or you love? 

3 per. ioTes he, or doth, or 3 per. Love they, or do they 
V does he love? l° ve? 

Prior-future Tense. 

Singular Plural. 

1 per. Shall I, or will I have 1 per. Shall we, or will we 

1 pfl ? have loved? 

2 per. Shalt thou, or wilt 2 per. Shall ye » o. gox ..or ^vvill 
* thou have loved ? y« or you have loved . 



92 INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 

3 per. Shall he, or will he 3 per. Shall they, or will 
have loved ? they have loved ? 

Indefinite-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Shall I, or will I 1 per. Shall we, or will we 

love ? love ? 

2 per. Shalt thou, or wilt 2 per. Shall ye or you, or 

thou love ?: will ye or you love ? 

3 per. Shall he, or will he 3 per. Shall they, or will 

love ?. love ?' 

Inferential Mode. 
Prior-past Tense; 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. I might, could, would 1 per. We might, could, would 

or should have loved, or should have loved, 

2 per. Thou mightst, couldst, 2 per. Ye or you might, 

wouldst or shouldst have could, would or should 

loved, have loved, 

3 per. He might, could, 3 per. They might, could, 

would or should have would or should have 

loved, s loved'. 

Indefinite Ten # se. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I might, could, would 1 per. We might, could would 

or should love, or should love. 

2 per. Thou mightst, couldst, 2 per. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst or shouldst love, would or should love, 

3 per. He might, could, 3 per., They might, could, 

would, or should love. would or should love. 

Prior-present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I may, can or must 1 per. We may, can or must 

have loved, have loved, 

2 per. Thou mayst, canst or 2 per. Ye or you may, can 

must have loved, or must have loved, 



INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 93 

3 per. He may, can or must 3 per* They may, can or must 
have loved 2 have loved. 

Present Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. I may, can or must 1 per. We may, can or must 

love, love, 

2 per. Thou mayst, canst or 2 per. Ye or you may, can or 

must love, must love, 

2 per. He may, can or must 3 per. They may, can or must 
love, love. 

Interrogative Mode* 

Formed from the Inferential* 

Prior-past Tense* 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes, 

1 per. Might, could, would or 1 per. Might, could, would or 
should I have loved ? should we have loved ? 

2 per. Mightst, couldst, 2 per. Might, could, would or 

wouldst or shouldst thou should ye or you have 
have loved ? loved ? 

3 per. Might, could, would or 3 per. Might, could, would or 
should, he have loved ? should they have loved ? 

Indefinite Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Might, could, would 1 per. Might, could, would 

or should I love? or should we love? 

2 per. Mightst, couldst, 2 per. Might, could, would or 
wouldst or shouldst thou should ye or you loved ? 

loved ? 

3 per. Might, could, would 3 per. Might, could, would 

or should he love ? or should they love ? 

Prior-present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. May, can or must I 1 per. May, can or must we 

have loved ? have loved ? 

2 per. Mayst, canst or must 2 per. May, can or must ye or 

thou have loved ? you have loved ? 



94 INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 

3 per. May, can or must he 3 per. May, can or must they 
have been loved? have been loved? 

Present Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1 per. May, can or must I 1 per. May, can or must we 

love? love? 

2 per. Mayst, canst or must 2 per. May, can or must ye or 

thou love ? you love? 

3 per. May, can or must he 3 per. May, can or must they 

love? love? 

Commanding Mode. 

Present Tense. 

Singular Substitute. Plural Substitute. 

2 per. Love thou, or do thou 2 per. Love ye or you, or do 
love. ye or you love. 

Unlimited Mode Dependent. 

Prior-past Tense. 

Completive form, To have loved. 
Continuative form* To have been loving* 

Indefinite Tense- 
Completive form, To love. 
Continuative form, To be loving. 

Unlimited Mode Independent. 

Prior-past Tense. 

Completive form, Having loved. 
Continuative form, Having been loving. 

Indefinite Tense. 

Completive form, Loved, [receptive,} 
Continuative form, Loving. 



INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 95 

RECEPTIVE ASSERTERS. 

From what are Receptive asserters formed ? 

From Transitive asserters. 

In what place does a transitive asserter become recep- 
tive ? 

In the completive form of the indefinite tense of the un- 
limited mode independent. 

How are receptive asserters inflected ? 

By being united with the Intransitive asserter am, or 
be, as an auxiliary, through all its varieties of form ; as 
in the following : 

Inflection of the Receptive Asserter, Am Loved. 

Declarative Mode. 
Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. I had been loved, 1 per. We had been loved, 

2 per. Thou hadst been 2 per. Ye or you had been 

loved, loved, * 

3 per. He, she or it had been 3 per. They had been loved. 

loved, 

Indefinite-past Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I was loved, 1 per. We were loved, 

2 per. Thou wast loved, 2 per. Ye or you were loved, 

3 per. He was loved, 3 per. They were loved. 

Prior-present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I have been loved, 1 per. We have been loved, 

2 per. Thou hast been loved. 2 per. Ye or you have been 

loved, 

3 per. He has been loved, 3 per. They have been loved, 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I am loved, 1 per. We are loved, 

2 per. Thou art loved, 2 per. Ye or you are loved, 

3 per. He is loved, 3 per. They are loved. 



96 INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 

Prior-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I shall or will have 1 per. We shall or will have 

been loved, been loved, 

2 per. Thou shalt or wilt 2 per. Ye or you shall or will 

have been loved, have been loved, 

3 per. He shall or will have 3 per. They shall or will have 

been loved, been lov^d. 

Indefinite-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I shall or will be 1 per. We shall or will be 

loved, loved, 

2 per. Thou shalt or wilt 2 per. Ye or you shall or will 

be loved, be loved, 

3 per. He shall or will be 3 per. They shall or will be 

loved, loved. 

Interrogative Mode. 
Formed from the Declarative. 
Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. Had I been loved ? 1 per. Had we been loved ? 

2 per. Hadst thou been lov- 2 per. Had ye or you been 

ed? loved? 

3 per. Had he been loved ? 3 per. Had they been loved ? 

Indefinite-past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Was I loved? 1 per. Were we loved ? 

2 per. Wast thou loved ? 2 per. Were ye or you lov- 

ed ? 

3 per. Was he loved ? 3 per. Were they loved 1 

Prior-present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Have I been loved ? 1 per. Have we been loved ? 

2 per. Hast thou been loved? 2 per. Have ye or you been 

loved ? 

3 per. Has he been loved ? 3 per. Have they been loved? 



INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 97 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Am I loved ? 1 per. Are we loved ? 

2 per. Art thou loved ? 2 per. Are ye or "you loved ? 

3 per. Is he loved ? 3 per. Are they loved ? 

Prior-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural, 

1 per. Shall I, or will I have 1 per. Shall we, or will we 

been loved ? have been loved ? 

2 per. Shalt thou, or wilt 2 per. Shall ye or you, or will 

thou have been loved ? ye or you have been loved? 

3 per. Shall he, or will he 3 per, Shall they, or will 

have been loved ? they have been loved ? 

Indefinite-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Shall I, or will I be 1 per. Shall we, or will we 

loved ? be loved ? 

2 per. Shalt thou, or wilt 2 per. Shall ye or you, or 

thou be loved ? will ye or you be loved ? 

3 per. Shall he, or will he be 3 per. Shall they, or will 

loved? they be loved? 

Inferential Mode. 
Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. I might, could, would 1 per. We might, could, would 
or should have been loved, or should have been loved, 

2 per. Thou mightst,comdst, 2 per. Ye or you might,could, 

wouldstor shouldsthave would or should have been 
been loved, loved, 

3 per. He might, could, 3 per. They might, could, 
would, orshould have been would or should have been 
loved, loved. 

Indefinite Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I might, could, would 1 per. We might,could, would 

or should be loved, or should be loved, 

2 per. Thou mightst,c( uldst, 2 per. Ye or you might,could, 
wouldst or shouldst be loved, would or should be loved, 

9 



98 INFLECTION OF ASSERTER3* 

3 per. He might,could, would 3 per. They might, could* 
or should be loved y would or should be loved 

Prior-present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I may, can or must I per. We may, can or must 

have been loved, have been loved, 

2 per. Thou mayst, canst or 2 per. Ye or you may, can or 

must/have been loved, must have been loved, 

2 per. He may. can or must 3 per. They may, can or must 
have been loved* have been loved* 

Present Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I may, can or must be 1 per. We may, can or must 

loved, be loved, 

2 per. Thou mayst, canst, or 2 per. Ye or you may, can or 

must be loved, must be loved, 

3 per. He may, can or must 3 per. They may, can or must 

be loved, be loved. 

Interrogative Mode. 

Formed from the Inferential. 

Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. Might, could, would or 1 per. Might, could, would o? 
should I have been loved ? should we have been loved? 

2 per. Mightst, couldst, 2 per. Might, could, would or 

wouldst or shouldst thou should ye or you have been 
have been loved ? loved ? 

3 per. Might, could,would or 3 per. Miglit, could, would or 
should, he have been loved? should they have been loved? 

Indefinite Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Might, could, would 1 per. Might, could, would 

or should I be loved ? or should we be loved ? 

2 per. Mightst, couldst, 2 per. Might, could, would or 
wouldst or shouldst thou should ye or you be loved ? 

be loved ? 

3 per. Might, could, would 3 per. Might, could, would 

or should he be loved ? or should they be loved \ 



INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 99 

Prior-present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. May, can or must I 1 per. May, can or must we 

have been loved ? have been loved ? 

2 per. Mayst, canst or must 2 per. May, can or must ye or 

thou have been loved? you have been loved ? 

3 per. May, can or must he 3 per* May, can or must they 

have been loved? have been loved? 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. May, can or must I 1 per. May, can or must we 

be loved ? be loved? 

2 per. Mayst, canst or must 2 per. May, can or must ye or 

thou be loved ? you be loved ? 

3 per* May, can or must he 3 per. May, can or must they 

be loved ? be loved ? 

Commanding Mode. 
Present Tense. 

Singular Substitute. Plural Substitute. 

2 per. Be thou, or do thou 2 per. Be ye or you loved, or 
be loved. do ye or you be loved* 

Unlimited Mode Dependent. 

Prior-past Tense. 

Completive form, To have been loved. 
Continuative form, [wanting.] 

Indefinite Tense. 
Completive form, To be loved. 
Continuative form, [wanting.] 

Unlimited Mode Independent. 

Prior-past Tense. 
Completive form, Having been loved. 
Continuative form, [wanting.] 

Indefinite Tense. 
Completive form, Loved. 
Continuative form, Being loved. 



100 INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 

Continuative form of Receptive Asserters. 

How are Receptive Asserters of the continuative form, 
made and inflected ? 

By the union of the continuative form, of the indefinite 
tense of the unlimited mode independent, with the asserter 
am, or be. 

In what modes and tenses may the continuative form of 
receptive asserters be used ? 

It may be used in the indefinite tense of the unlimited 
mode independent, (as on the preceding page,) the indefi- 
nite-past and present of the declarative mode, and the in- 
terrogative formed from the declarative mode. 

Inflection of the Receptive Asserter am loved. Con- 
tinuative form. 

Declarative Mode, 
Indefinite-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. I was being loved, 1 per. We were being loved f 

2 per. Thou wast being 2 per. Ye or you were being 

loved, loved* 

3 per. He was being loved, 3 per. They were being loved. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. PlwaL 

1 per. I am being loved, 1 p^r. We are being loved, 

2 per. Thou art being 2 per. Ye or you are being 

loved, loved, 

3 per. He is being loved, 3 per. They are being loved. 

Interrogative Mode. 

Formed from the Declarative* 
Indefinite-past Tense* 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. Was I being loved? 1 per. Were we being loved? 

2 per. Wast thou being 2 per. Were ye or you being 

loved ? _ loved ? 

3 per. Was he being loved ? 3 per. Were they being loved? 






INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 101 

Present Tense. 

Singular, - Plural. 

1 per. Am I being loved ? 1 per. Were we being loved ? 

2 per. Art thou being loved ? 2 per. Were ye or you being 

loved ? 

3 per. Is he being loved ? 3 per. Were they being loved?* 

Inflection of the Irregular Transitive Asserter, Write. 

Completive Form. 

Declarative Mode. 

Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. I had written, 1 per. We had written, 

2 per. Thou hadst written, 2 per. Ye or you had written, 

3 per. He had written, 3 per. They had written. 

Indefinite-past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I wrote, or did write, 1 per. We wrote or did write, 

2 per. Thou wrotest, or didst 2 per. Ye or you wrote, or 

write, did write, 

3 per. He wrote, or did 3 per. They wrote or did 

write, write. 

Prior-present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I have written, c 1 per. We have written, 

2 per. Thou hast written, 2 per. Ye or you have written., 

3 per. He hath or has written, 3 per. They have written. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I write, or do write, 1 per. We write, or do write, 

2 per. Thou writest, or dost 2 per. Ye or you write, or do 

write, write, 

3 per. He writes, or does 3 per. They write or do 

write, write. 

* The continuative form of the receptive asserter ' am loved,'' is not to 
be used in the inflections here given. The reason why it is carried out 
in all its varieties, is, that some asserter must be used as a sample for the 
formation of other receptive asserters which may be, and will be used, 
in the inflections here given to am loved. 

9* 



102 INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 

Prior-future Tense. 
Singula r . . Plural. 

1 per. I shall or will have 1 per. We shall or will have 

written, written, 

2 per. Thou shalt or wilt 2 per. Ye or you shall or will 

have written, have written, 

3 per. He shall or will have 3 per. They shall or will have 

written, written. 

Indefinite-future Tense* 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I shall or will write, 1 per. We shall or will write, 

2 per. Thou shalt or wilt 2 per. Ye or you shall or will 

write, write, 

3 per. He shall or will write, 3 per. They shall or will write. 

Interrogative Mode, 
Formed from the Declarative* 
Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. Had I written ? 1 per. Had we written ? 

2 per. Hadst thou written? 2 per. Had ye or you written? . 

3 per. Had he written ? 3 per. Had they written ? 

Indefinite-past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Wrote I, or did I 1 per. Wrote we, or did we 

write? write? 

2 per. Wrotest thou, or didst 2 per. Wrote ye or you, or 

thou write ? did ye or you write ? 

3 per. Wrote he, or did he 3 per. Wrote they, or did 

write ? they write ? 

Prior-present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Have I written ? 1 per. Have we written ? 

2 per. Hast thou written ? 2 per. Have ye or you written? 

3 per. Has he or hath he 3 per. Have they written ? 

written ? 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

! per. Write I, or do I write? 1 per. Write we, or do we 

write ? 



INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 103 

2 per. Writest thou, or dost 2 per. Write ye or you, or do 

thou write? ye or you write? 

3 per. Writes he, or doth or 3 per. Write they, or do they 

does he write ? write ? 

Prior-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Shall I, or will I have 1 per. Shall we, or will we 

written ? have written ? 

2 per. Shalt thou, or wilt 2 per. Shall ye or you, or will 

thou have written? ye or you have written? 

3 per. Shall he, or will he 3 per. Shall they, or will they 

have written? have written? 

Indefinite-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Shall I, or will I 1 per. Shall we, or will we 

write ? write ? 

2 per. Shalt thou, or wilt 2 per. Shall ye, or will ye or 

thou write ? you write ? 

3 per. Shall he, or will he 3 per. Shall they, or will they 

write ? write ? 

Inferential Mode. 
Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. I might, could, would 1 per. We might, could, would 

or should have written, or should have written, 

2 per. Thou mightst, couldst, 2 per. Ye or you might, could, 

wouhlst or shouldst would or should have 

have written, written, 

3 per. He might, could, 3 per. They might, could, 

would or should have would or should have 

written, written. 

Indefinite Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I might, could, would 1 per. We might, could,would 

or should write, or should write, 

2 per. Thou mightst, couldst, 2 per. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst or shouldst write, would or should write, 

3 per. He might, could, 3 per. They might, could, 

would or should write, would or should write. 



104 INFLECTION OF A3SERTERS. 

Prior-present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I may, can or must 1 per. We may, can or must 

have written, have written, 

2 per. Thou mayst, canst, or 2 per. Ye or you may, can or 

must have written, must have written, 

3 per. He may, can or must 3 per. They may, can or must 

have written, have written. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I may, can or must 1 per. We may, can or must 

write, write, 

2 per. Thou mayst, canst or 2 per. Ye or you may, can or 

must write, must write, 

3 per. He may, can or must 3 per. They may, can or must 

write, write. 

Interrogative Mode, 

Formed from the Inferential. 

Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. Might, could, would 1 per. Might, could, would or 

or should I have written? should we have written? 

2 per. Mightst, couldst, 2 per. Might, could, would or 
wouldst or shouldst thou should ye or you have 
have written ? written ? 

3 per. Might, could, would 3 per. Might, could, would or 
or should he have written ? should they have written ? 

Indefinite Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Might, could, would 1 per. Might, could, would or 

or should I write ? should we write ? 

2 per. Mightst, couldst, 2 per. Might, could, would or 
wouldst or shouldst thou should ye or you write ? 
write ? 

3 per. Might, could, would 3 per. Might, could, would or 

or should he write ? should they write ? 



INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 105 

Prior-present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. May, can or must I 1 per. May, can or must we 

have written ? have written ? 

2 per. Mayst, canst, or must 2 per. May, can or must ye or 

thou have written ? you have written ? 

3 per. May, can or must he 3 per. May, can or must they 

have written ? have written ? 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. May, can or must I 1 per. May, can or must we 

write ? write ? 

2 per. Mayst, canst or must 2 per. May, can or must ye or 

thou write ? you write? 

3 per. May, can or must he 3 per. May, can or must they 

write ? write ? 

Commanding Mode. 
Present Tense. 

Singular Substitute. Plural Substitute. 

Write thou, or do thou write. Write ye or you, or do ye 

or you write. 

Unlimited Mode Dependent. 

Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitute. Plural Substitute. 

Completive form, To have written. 

Continuative form, To have been writing. 

Indefinite Tense. 
Completive form, To write. 

Continuative form, To be writing. 

Unlimited Mode Independent. 

Prior-past Tense. 
Completive form, Having written. 

Continuative form, Having been writing. 

Indefinite Tense. 
Completive form, Written. [Receptive.] 

Continuative form, Writing. 



106 INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 

Inflection of the Continuative of Intransitive or 
Transitive Assrrter. 

How is the continuative form of a transitive asserter or 
any intransitive one, except am or Z>*', formed ? 

By annexing to am or be in its variations^ the continua- 
tive form, the indefinite tense of the unlimited mode inde- 
pendent, as exhibited in the third column of the table 
which follows the Inflections : thus, 

Inflection of the Continuative of the Asserter, Write. 

Declarative Mode. 
Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. I had been writing, 1 per. We had been writing, 

2 per. Thou hadst been 2 per. Ye or you had been 

writing, writing, 

3 per. He, she or it had 3 per. They had been writing. 

been writing, 

Indefinite-past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I was writing, 1 per. We were writing, 

2 per. Thou wast writing, 2 per. Ye or you were writing, 

3 per. He, &c. was writing, 3 per. They were writing. 

Prior-present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I have been writing, 1 per. We have been writing, 

2 per. Thou hast been writ- 2 per. Ye or you have been 

ing, writing, 

3 per. He hath or has been 3 per. They have been writ- 

writing, ing. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I am writing, 1 per. We are writing, 

2 per. Thou art writing, 2 per. Ye or you are writing, 

3 per. He is writing, 3 per. They are writing. 



INFLECTrON OF ASSERTERS. 107 

Prior-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I shall or will have 1 per. We shall or will have 

been writing, been writing, 

2 per. Thou shalt or wilt 2 per. Ye or you shall or will 

have been writing, hove been writing, 

3 per. He shall or will have 3 per. They shall or will have 

been writing, been writing. 

Indefinite-future Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plu-al Substitutes. 

1 per. I shall or will be 1 per. We shall or will be 

writing, writing, 

2 per. Thou shalt or wilt be 2 per. Ye or you shall or will 

writing, be writing, 

3 per. He shall or will be 3 per. They shall or will be 

writing, writing. 

Interrogative Mode. 

Formed from the Declarative. 
Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. Had I been writing? 1 per. Had we been writing? 

2 per. Hadst thou been writ- 2 per. Had ye or you been 

ing? writing? 

3 per. Had he been writing ? 3 per. Had they been writing ? 

Indefinite-past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Was I writing? 1 per. Were we writing? 

2 per. Wast thou writing? 2 per. Were ye or you writ- 

ing? 

3 per. Was he writing ? 3 per. Were they writing ? 

Prior-present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Have I been writing ? 1 per. Have we been writing ? 

2 per. Hast thou been writ- 2 per. Have ye or you been 

ing ? writing ? 

3 per. Has he or hath he 3 per. Have they been writ- 

been writing ? ing ? 



108 INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Am I writing? 1 per. Are we writing? 

2 per. Art thou writing ? 2 per. Are ye or you writing? 

3 per. Is he writing? 3 per. Are they writing? 

Prior-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Shall I or will I have 1 per. Shall we or will we 

been writing? have been writing? 

2 per. Shalt thou or wilt 2 per. Shall ye or you or will 
thou have been writing ? ye or you have been 

writing ? 

3 per. Shall he or will he 3 per. Shall they or will they 

have been writing ? have been writing? 

Indefinite-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Shall 1 or will I be 1 per. Shall we or will we be 

writing? writing? 

2 per. Shalt thou or wilt 2 per. Shall ye or you or will 

thou be writing? ye or you be writing? 

3 per. Shall he or will he 3 per. Shall they or will they 

be writing ? be writing ? 

Inferential Mode. 

Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. I might, could, would 1 per. We might, could, would 
or should have been writ- or should have been writ- 
ing, ing, 

2 per. Thou mightst,couldst, 2 per. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst or shouldst have would or should have been 
been writing, writing, 

3 per. He might, could, 3 per. They might, could, 

would or should have would or should have been 
been writing, writing. 

Indefinite Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I might, could, would 1 per. We might, could, would 
or should be writing, or should be writing, 



INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 109 

2 per.Thou mightst, cduldst, 2 per. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst or shouldst be would or should be writ- 

writing, * n g» 

3 per. He might, could would 3 per. They mighty could, 
or should be writing, would or should be writing. 

Prior-present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I may, can or must 1 per. We may, can or must 

have been writing, have been writing, 

2 per. Thou mayst, canst or 2 per. Ye or you may, can or 

must have been writing, must have been writing, 

3 per. He may, can or must 3 per. They may, can or must 

have been writing, have been writing. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I may, can or must be 1 per. We may, can or must 

writing, be writing, 

2 per. Thou mayst, canst or 2 per. Ye or you may, can or 

must be writing, must be writing, 

3 per. He may, can or must 3 per. They may, can or must 

be writing, be writing, 

Interrogative Mode. 

Formed from the Inferential. 

Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. Might, could, would 1 per. Might, could, would or 

or should I have been should we have been 

writing ? writing ? 

2 per. Mightst, couldst, 2 per. Might, could, would or 
wouldst or shouldst thou should ye or you have 
have been writing ? been writing ? 

3 per. Might, could, would 3 per. Might, could, would or 

or should he have been should they have been 

writing ? writing ? 

Indefinite Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Might, could, would 1 per. Might, could, would or 
or should I be writing? should we be writing? 

10 



110 INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 

2 per. Mightst, couldst, 2 per. Might, could, would or 
wouldst or shouldst thou should ye or you be writ- 
be writing? ing ? 

3 per. Might, could, would 3 per. Might, could, would or 
or should he be writing ? should they be writing ? 

Prior-present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. May, can or must I 1 per. May, can or must we 

have been writing? have been writing? 

2 per. Mayst, canst or must 2 per. May, can or must ye or 
thou have been writing ? you have been writing? 

1 per. May, can or must he 3 per. May, can or must they 
have been writing? have been writing ? 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. May, can or must I 1 per. May, can or must we 

be writing? be writing? 

2 per. Mayst, canst or must 2 per. May, can or must ye or 

thou be writing ? you be writing ? 

3 per. May, can or must he 3 per. May, can or must they 

be writing? be writing? 

Commanding Mode. 

Present Tense. 
Singular Substitute. Plural Substitute. 

Be thou, or do thou be Be ye or you, or do ye or 

writing ? you be writing ? 

Unlimited Mode Dependent. 

Prior-past Tense. — To have been writing. 

Indefinite Tense. — To be writing. 

Unlimited Mode Independent. 

Prior-past Tense. — Having been writing. 

Indefinite Tense. — Writing. 



BLANK INFLECTIONS OP ASSERTER. HI 



BLANK INFLECTION OF THE ASSERTER.* 

Completive Form. 
Declarative Mode. 
Prior-past Tense. 
Singular Substitutes. Mural Substitutes. 

1 per. I had— 1 per. We had— 

2 per. Thou hadst— 2 per. Ye or you — 

3 per. He, she or it had— 3 per. They had— 

Indefinite past Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I — or did — 1 per. We — or did — 

2 per. Thou — or didst— 2 per. Ye or you — or did — 

3 per. He— or did — 3 per. They — or did — 

Prior-present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I have — 1 per. We have — 

2 per. Thou hast — 2 per. Ye or you have— 

3 per. He hath or has— 3 per. They have — 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I— or do — 1 per. We — or do~ 

2 per. Thou — or dost— 2 per. Ye or you — or do— 

3 per. He — or — or doth or 3 per. They— or do- 

does— 

Prior-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I shall or will have — » 1 per. We shall or will have — 

2 per. Thou shalt or wilt 2 per. Ye or you shall or 

have — will have — 

3 per. He shall or will have — ■ 3 per. They shall or will 

have — 

* These blank inflections for examples, are designed as a general guide 
to the pupil. They can be made complete by his using the principal as- 
eerter with them. When he would change the Declarative or the Infer- 
ential mode, into the Interrogative, he needs only to place the principal 
asserter, or its auxiliary, before the word in the subjective case, on 
which it depends. The pupil can see how to change it to the receptive 
or continuative form, by referring to the preceding examples. 



112 BLANK INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS, 

Indefinite-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural* 

1 per. I shall or will— 1 per. We shall or will— 

2 per. Thou shalt or wilt — 2 per. Ye or you shall or 

will — 

3 per* He shall or will— 3 per. They shall or will— 

Inferential Mode. 
Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes* 

1 per* I might, could, would 1 per. We might, could, wouTd 

or should have — or should have— 

2 per. Thou mightst, couldst, 2 per. Ye or you might, 

wouldstor shouldst have- — could, would or should 

have — 

3 per. He might, could, would 3 per. They might, could. 

should have — would or should have — 

Indefinite Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I might, could, would 1 per. We might, could 

or should- — would or should— 

2 per. Thou mightst, couldst, 2 per. Ye or you might, 

wouldst or shouldst— could, would or should — 

5 per. He might} could. 3 per. They might, could ? 
would or should — would or should — 

Prior-present Tense* 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I may, can or must I per. We may, can or must 

have— have— 

2 per. Thou mayst, canst or 2 per. Ye or you may, can 

must have— or must have — 

3 per. He may, can or must 3 per. They may, can or 

have — must ,have-^ 

Present Tense. 
Singular* Plural*. 

1 per. I may, can or must — 1 per. We may can or must— 

2 per. Thou mayst, canst or 2 per. Ye or you may, can of 

must — must — 

3 per. He may, can or must— 3 per. They may, can or 

must — 



INFLECTION OP A3SERTERS. 113 

Commanding Mode. 

Present Tense* 

Singular Substitute. Plural Substitute. 

2 per. — thou, or do thou— 2 per. — ye or you, or do 

ye or you — 

Unlimited Mode Dependent. 

Prior-past Tense. 
Completive form, To have — 
Continuative form, To have been — ing. 

Indefinite Tense. 
Completive form, To — 
Continuative form, To be — ing. 

Unlimited Mode Independent. 
Prior-past Tense. 
Completive form, Having — 
Continuative form, Having been — ing. 

Indefinite Tense. 

Completive form, — ed, or en [receptive,] 
Continuative form, — ing. 

Inflection of the Receptive Asserter written, which, 
when the subject of remark is not a person or a collection 
of persons, has not the word * to,' affixed, but when it is a 
person, or collective body of persons, the word ' to,' is 
affixed. We say, * a letter was written ;' and of persons, 
companies, &c, ' they were^vritten to ;' of a body corpo- 
rate, or society ; * it was written to. 9 

Declarative Mode. 
Prior-past Tense. 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes. 

1 per. I had been written to, 1 per. We had been written 

to, 

2 per. Thou hadst been writ- 2 per. Ye or you had been 

ten to, written to, 

3 per. He, she or it had been 3 per. They had been writ- 

written to, ten to. 

10* 



1 14 INFLECTION OP ASSERTERS* 

Indefinite-past Tense. 

Singular. Plural* 

1 per. I was written to, 1 per. We were written to? 

2 per. Thou wast written to, 2 per. Ye or you were writ- 

ten to, 

3 per* He was written to, 3 per. They were written to. 

Prior-present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I have been written to, 1 per. We have been written 

to, 

2 per. Thou hast been writ- 2 per. Ye or you have been 

ten to, written to, 

3 per. He hath or has been 3 per. The) r have been writ* 

written to, ten to. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I am written to, 1 per. We are written to, 

2 per. Thou art written to, 2 per. Ye or you are written 

to, 

3 per. He is written to, 3 per. They are written to. 

Prior-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I shall or will have 1 per. We shall or will have 

been written to, been written to, 

2 per. Thou shalt or wilt 2 per. Ye or you shall have 

have been written to, been written to, 

3 per. He shall or will have 3 per. They shall or will have 

been written to, been written to. 

Indefinite-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural* 

1 per. I shall or will, be writ- 1 per. We shall or will be 

ten to, written to, 

2 per. Thou shalt or wilt be 2 per. Ye or you shall or will 

written to, be written to, 

3 per. He shall or will be 3 per. They shall or will be 

written to, written to. 



INFLECTION OF ASSERTERS. 115 

Inferential Mode*. 
Prior-past Tense, 

Singular Substitutes. Plural Substitutes, 

1 per. I might, could, would 1 per. We might, could, would 

or should have been, writ- or should have been writ- 
ten to, ten to, 

2 per. Thou mightst, couldst, 2 per. Ye or you might, 
wouldst or shouldst have could, would or should 
been written to, have been written to, 

3 per. He might, could, 3 per. They might, could, 
would or should have been would or should have been 
written to, written to. 

Indefinite Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I might, could, would 1 per. We might, could, would 

or should be written to, or should be written to, 

2 per. Thou mightst, couldst, 2 per. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst or shouldst be would or should be writ- 

written to, ten tOj 

3 per. He might, could, 3 per. They might, could, 
would or should be writ- would or should be writ- 
ten to, ten to. 

Prior-present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I may, can, or must 1 per. We may, can or must 

have been written to, have been written to. 

2 per. Thou mayst, canst or 2 per. Ye or you may, can or 

must have been written must have been written 

to, to,, 

3 per. He may, can or must 3 per. They may, can or must 

have been written to, have been written to, 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 per. I may, can or must 1 per. We may, can or must 

be written to, be written to, 

2 per. Thou mayst, canst or 2 per. Ye or you may, can or 

must be written to, must be written to, 

3 per. He may, can or must 3 per. They may, can or must 

be written to, be written to* 



116 



REGULAR ASSERTERS. 



N. B. This manner of inflecting may be applied to some 
other asserters, and be continued through the different 
modes and tenses. To inflect irregular asserters, the pupil 
has only to observe their different forms in the following 
table, and inflect them, in other respects, like the regular 
asserters. Further inflections of irregular asserters are 
therefore deemed unnecessary. The pupil should be ex- 
ercised in the following table, till he can, without difficulty, 
inflect each asserter in it. Let the teacher name the word 
and the learner give its inflections. Those asserters mark- 
ed with the letter (R) are inflected regularly, as well as 
irregularly. Those marked with the star (*) formerly had 
the regular, but now have only the irregular inflection. 
Of those marked with this character, (f) the Completive 
form, of the Indefinite tense r of the Unlimited Mode In- 
dependent, is not used without an auxiliary. 

In the following examples and table of asserters, what 
form occupies the first or left hand column ? 

The primary form ; as, I love. I think. I write* 

What form occupies the second column ? 

The Indefinite-past tense ; as, I lov-ed. I thought. 

What form occupies the third column ? 

The Continuative form, of the Indefinite tense, of the 
Unlimited Mode Independent ; as, I saw John writing. 
He sat thinking. I saw the paper burning. 

What form occupies the fourth column ? 

The Completive form of the Indefinite-future tense of the 
Unlimited Mode Independent ; as, I saw the letter written. 
I found John respected. I saw the paper burnt* 



Examples of Regular Asserters. 



Primary form. 

Love 

Hate 

Walk 

Respect 

Esteem 

Divide 

Assert 



Indefinite-past 
Tense. 

Lov-ed 

Hat-ed 

Walked 

Respect-ed 

Esteem-ecZ 

Divid-ed 

Assert-ed 



Continuative form 
of the Indef. Tense 
of the| Unlimited 
Mode Independent 

Ibov-ing 

Hat-zVig- 

Walk-zwg* 

Respect-z/ig* 

Esteem -ing 

Divid-ing 

Assert-ing 



Completive form of 
the Indef. Tense of 
theUnlimited Mod© 
Independent. 

Lov-ed 

Hat-ed 

Walk-edf 

Respect-ed 

Esteem-ed 

Divid-ed 

Assert-gd 



IRREGULAR AS3ERTERS. 



117 



Table 


ofth 


e Irregular 


Asserters of the Language. 


Primary 
form 




Indefinite-past 
Tense. 


Contin. form Indef. 
T.Unl.Mode Indep, 


Compl. form Indef. 
T.Unl.Mode Indep. 


Abide 




abode 


abiding 


abodef 


Am 




was 


being 


beenf 


Arise 




arose 


arising 


arisen 


Awake 




awoke 


awaking 


awakened 


i to bring 
Bear < forth o$ 


- bore, bare 


bearing 


borne,* born 


§ spring 








Bear to carry 


bore 


bearing 


borne 


Beat 




beat 


beating 


beaten, beat 


Begin 
Bend 




began 
bent 


beginning 
bending 


begun 
bent 


Bereave* 




bereft 


Deleaving 


bereft 


Beseech 
Bid 




besought 
bid, bade 


beseeching 
bidding 


besought 
bidden, bid 


Bind 




bound 


binding 


bound 


Bite 




bit 


biting 


bitten, bit 


Bleed 




bled 


bleeding 


bled 


Blow 




blew 


blowing 


blown 


Break 




broke 


breaking 


broken 


Breed 




bred 


breeding 


bred 


Bring 
Build 




brought 
built 


bringing 
building 


brought 
built 


Burst 




burst 


bursting 


burst 


Buy 

Become 




bought 
became 


buying 
becoming 


bought 
become* 


Behold 




beheld 


beholding 


beheld 


Cast 




cast 


casting 


cast 


Catch 




caught 


catching 


caught 


Choose 




chose 


choosing 


chosen 


Cleave toadhere clave R 


cleaving 


cleavedf 


Cleave to 


Split 


cleft or clove cleaving 


cleft, cloven 


Cling 
Clothe R 




clung 
clothed 


clinging 
clothing 


clungf 
clad 


Come 




came 


coming 


come 


Cost 




cost 


costing 


costf 


Crow 




crew 


crowing 


crowedf 


Creep 




crept 


creeping 


creptf 



* Borne is used in the transitive asserter and born in the receptive. 



118 



IRREGULAR ASSERTERS. 



Primary 
form. 


Indefinite-past 
Tense. 


Contin. form Indef. 
T.Unl.Mode Indep. 


Com pi. form Indef. 
T.Unl.Mode Indep. 


Cut cut 
Dare, to venture durst or 


cutting 
dared daring 


cut 
dared 


Dare, to challenge, Regular* 

Deal dealt dealing 


dealt 


Dig* 
Do 


dug 
did 


digging 
doing 


dug 
done 


Draw 


drew 


drawing 


drawn 


Drive 


drove 


driving 


driven 


Drink 


drank 


drinking 


drank 


Dwelt 


dwelt 


dwelling 


dweltt 


Dream R 


dreamt 


dreaming 


dreamt ! 


DropR 
Eat 


dropt 
ate 


dropping 
eating 


dropt 
eaten 


Fall 
Feed 


fell 
fed 


falling 
feeding 


fallen 
fed 


Feel 


felt 


feeling 


felt 


Fight 
Find 


fought 
found 


fighting 
finding 


fought 
found 


Flee 

Fling 

Fly 

Forget 

Forsake 

Freeze 


fled 

flung 

flew 

forgot 

forsook 

froze 


fleeing 

flinging 

flying 

forgetting 

forsaking 

freezing 


fledf 

flung 

flownf 

forgotten 

forsak&a 

frozen 


Forbear 


forbore 


forbearing 


forborne 


Gild R 

Get 

GirdR 


gilt 
got 
girt 


gilding 
getting 
girding 


gilt 
got 
girt 


Give 


gave 


giving 


given 


Go 


went 


going 


gone 


Grave R 
Grind 


graved 
ground 


graving 
grinding 


graven 
ground 


Grow 
Have 

Hang* 


grew 

had 

hung 


growing 

having 

hanging 


grown 

hadt 

hung 


Hear 


heard 


hearing 


heard 


Hew 


hewed 


hewing 


hewn 


Hide 


hid 


hiding 


hidden, hid 


Hit 


hit 


hitting 


hit 


Hold 


held 


holding 


held 



IRREGULAR ASSERTERS. 



119 



Primary 


Indefinite-past Contin. form Indef. 


Compl. form Indef. 


form. 


% Tense. 


T. Unl.Mode Indep. 


T.Unl.Mode Indep. 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurting 


hurt 


Keep 


kept 


keeping 


kept 


Knit* 


knit 


knitting 


knit 


Know 


knew 


knowing 


known 


Kneel 


knelt 


kneeling 


knelt 


LayJ 


laid 


laying 


laid 


Lead 


led 


leading 


led 


Leave 


left 


* leaving 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lending 


lent 


Let 


let 


letting 


let 


Lie, to lie down§ lay- 


lying 


lain 


Load R 


loaded 


loading 


laden 


Lose 


lost 


losing 


lost 


Light 


lighted or lit lighting 


lighted or lit 


Make 


made 


making 


made 


Meet 


met 


meeting 


met 


Mow 


mowed 


mowing 


mown 


Mean 


meant 


meaning 


meantf 


Pay 


paid 


paying 


paid 


Put 


put 


putting 


put 


Read 


read 


reading 


read 


Rend 


rent 


rending 


rent 


Rid 


rid 


ridding 


rid 


Ride 


rode 


riding 


rode 


Ring 


rang or rung ringing 


rung 


Rise 


rose 


rising 


risen 


RiveR 


rived 


riving 


riven 


Run 


run 


running 


run 


Saw 


sawed 


sawing 


sawn 


Say 


said 


saying 


said 


See 


saw 


seeing 


seen 


Seek 


sought 


seeking 


sought 


Sell 


sold 


selling 


sold 


Send 


sent 


sending 


sent 


Set|| 


set 


setting 


set 


Shake 


shook 


shaking 


shaken, shook 


Shape 


shaped 


shaping 


shaped, shapen 


Shave R 


shaved 


shaving 


shaven 


Shear 


sheared 


shearing 


shorne 


t Transitive. 


v Intransitive. 


II Transitive. 



I#0 



I&itEGULAR ASSERTERS. 



Primary 


Indefinite-past 


Contin. form Indef. 


Compl. foVm Indeft 


form. 


Tense. 


T.Unl.Mode lndep. 


T.Unl.Mode lndep. 


Shed 


shed 


shedding 


shed 


Shine 


shone 


shining 


shone # 


Show 


showed 


showing 


shown 


Shoe 


shod 


shoeing 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 


shooting 


shot 


Shrink 


shrunk, shrank shrinking 


shrunk 


Shred 


shred 


shredding 


shred 


Shut 


shut 


shutting 


shut 


Sing 


sung, sang 


singing 


sung 


Sink 


sunk, sank 


sinking 


sunk 


SitJ 


sat 


sitting 


satf 


Slay 


slew 


slaying 


slain 


Sleep 


slept 


sleeping 


sleptj 


Slide 


slid 


sliding 


slid 


Sling 


slung 


slinging 


slung 


Slink 


slunk 


slinking 


slunk 


Slit 


slit 


slitting 


slit 


Smite 


smote 


smiting 


smitten 


Sow 


«owed 


sowing 


sown 


Speak 


spoke, spak 


e speaking 


spoken 


Speed 


sped 


speeding 


spedf 


Spend 


spent 


spending 


spent 


Spill R 


spilt 


spilling 


spilt 


Spin 


spun 


spinning 


spun 


Spit 


spit 


spitting 


spit 


Split 


split 


splitting 


split 


Spread 


spread 


spreading 


spread 


Spring 


sprung, sprang springing 


sprung 


Stand 


stood 


standing 


stoodf 


Steal 


stole 


stealing 


stolen 


Stick 


stuck 


sticking 


stuck 


Sting 


stung 


stinging 


stung 


Stink 


stunk 


stinking 


stunkf 


Stride 


strode 


striding 


strodef 


Strike 


struck 


striking 


struck 


String 


strung 


stringing 


strung 


Strive 


strove 


striving 


strove, 


Strow or 


strew strowed or 


) s trowing or 


) strown, 
) or strewed 




strewed j 


) strewing 




t Intransitive. 





DEFECTIVE ASSERTERS. 



121 



Primary 
form. 

Sweat 

Swear 

Swell R 

Swim 

Swing 

Take 

Teach 

Tear 

Tell 

Think 

Thrive R 

Throw 

Thrust 

Tread 

Wear 

Weave 

Wet 

Weep 

Win 

Wind 

Work 

Wring 

Write 



Indefinite-past 
Tense. 

swet 

swore 

swelled 

swam, swum 

swung 

took 

taught 

tore 

told 

thought 

throve 

threw 

thrust 

trod 

wore 

wove 

wet 

wept 

won 

wound 



Contin. form Indef. 
T.Unl Mode Indep. 

swetting 

swearing 

swelling 

swimming 

swinging 

taking 

teaching 

tearing 

telling 

thinking 

thriving 

throwing 

thrusting 

treading 

wearing 

weaving 

wetting 

weeping 

winning 

winding 



worked, wrought working 
wrung wringing 

wrote writing 



Compl. form Indef, 
T.Unl.Mode Indep, 

swet 
sworn 
swollen 
swumf 
swung 
taken 
taught 
torn 
told 

thoughtf 
throvef 
thrown 
thrust 
trodden 
worn 
woven 
wet 
weptf 
won 
wound 
worked, wrought 
wrung 
written 



Trow, 



List of Defective Asserters. 
Quoth, Wot, Beware, 



Wist, 



RULES, 

FOR THE USE OF THE AUXILIARIES, 

Am or Be ; 

[Whether a Principal or an Auxiliary.] 
N. B. In the following rules, concerning auxiliaries, the 
pupil should remember, that, whenever they are said to be 
used in the Declarative or Inferential mode, they are also 
used in the Interrogative formed from that mode ; for the 
Interrogative is only the Declarative or Inferential re- 
versed ; that when they are said to be used in certain 
tenses, they should be used in those tenses, in whatever 

11 



122 USE OF AUXILIARIES. 

modes they occur, but never in any other tense ; that when 
they are said to be used, referring to particular words, or 
words of a certain person, or form, (with respect to num- 
ber,) they should not be used referring to words of other 
persons, or in another form ; that whenever they are said 
to be used in one place, they should be used in no other 
which is not specified ; and that where no restriction in 
their use, (with respect to person and number,) is mention- 
ed, none is to be used. 

Been. Where should been be used ? 

Rule 1. It should be used in the 'prior tenses : prior- 
past, prior-present, and prior- future. 

[Give examples, by referring to the foregoing inflections.] 

Was, wast, wert. Where should was be used? 

Rule 2. It should be used in the indefinite-past tense, 
when referring to a word in the singular form ; but is 
changed to wast, or wert, when referring to thou, as 
denoting the subject of remark. [Give examples.] 

Were. Where should were be used ? 

Rule 3* It should be used in the Indefinite-past tense, 
when referring to names or substitutes in the plural form, 
[Give examples.] 

Am, art, is. Where should am be used ? 

Rule 4. It should be used in the present tense of the 
Declarative mode, when referring to I, as denoting the 
subject: but it is changed to art, when referring to thou; 
and to is, when referring to a word of the third person 
and singular form. [Give examples.] 

Are. Where should are be used ? 

Rule 5. It should be used in the Present tense of the 
Declarative mode, when referring to we, you, or they; 
or to names of the third person, and in the plural form. 
[Give examples.] 

Be. Where should be be used ? 

Rule 6. It should be used in the Indefinite-future tense 
of the Declarative mode, in the Indefinite and the Present 
tense of Inferential, in the Commanding mode, and in the 
Indefinite tense of the Unlimited mode dependent. [Give 
examples.] 

What general rule, respecting the forms of asserters, is 
to be observed? 

Rule 7. All asserters and their inflections, except Am 



USE OF AUXILIARIES. 123 

or Be, whether as principals or auxiliaries, have the same 
form when referring to plural names and substitutes, (no 
matter what their persons are,) as they have, when refer- 
ing to the substitute I, as denoting the subject ; as, I love, 
they love : I have lived, they have lived : I write, they 
write. [Give other examples.] 

Did, didst. Where may did be used? 

Rule 8. It may be used in the Indefinite-past tense ; 
but it is changed to didst, when referring to thou. It 
should, as an auxiliary, be prefixed to the principal, when 
used in the Interrogative mode ; as, thou didst write, 
instead of, thou wrotest. ' Didst thou write V instead of, 
wrotest thou ? Did he write ? instead of wrote he? 

Do, dost, does, doest, doth. Where may do be used ? 

Rule 9. In the Commanding mode ; in the Present 
tense of the Declarative, when referring to 1, or to plural 
names or substitutes. It is changed to dost, or doest, when 
referring to thou, and to does, doeth or doth, when refer- 
ring to a name or substitute of the third person and in the 
singular form, and must be used in ordinary discourse, in 
forming the Interrogative mode. [Give examples.] 

Had, hadst. Where should had be used ? 

Rule 10. It should be used in the Prior-past tense of 
the Declarative mode ; and be changed to hadst, when 
referring to thou. [Give examples.] 

Have, hath, has, hast, having. Where should have be 
used ? 

Rule 11. It should be used in the Prior-present tense 
of the Declarative mode, when referring to /; it is 
changed to hast, when referring to thou ; to has or 
hath when referring to a word of the third person and 
singular form ; it may be used in the Prior-future of the 
Declarative, and the Prior-past, and Prior-present, of the 
Inferential preceded by another auxiliary : in the Prior- 
past of the Unlimited mode Dependent, and, changed to 
having, in the Prior-past tense of the Unlimited mode 
Independent.' [Give examples.] 

Might, mightst. Where should might be used. 

Rule 12. It should be' used in the Indefinite tense of 
the Inferential mode ; and, followed by have, in the 
Prior-past tense of the same mode. [Give examples.] 

May, may st. Where should may be used ? 



124 USE OF AUXILIARIES* 

Rule 13. It should be used in the Present tense of the 
Inferential mode ; and, followed by have, in the Prior- 
present tense of the same mode. [Give examples.] 
, Must. Where should must be used ? 

Rule 14. It should be used in the Present tense of the 
Inferential mode; and, followed by have, the Prior-pre- 
sent tense of the same mode. It is never varied in form. 
[Give examples.} 

Can, canst. Where should can be used ? 

Rule 15. It should be used in the Present tense of the 
Inferential mode; and followed by have, in the Prior- 
present tense of the same mode. [Give examples.] 

Could, couldst. Where should could, be used ? 

Rule 15. It should be used in the Indefinite tense of the 
Inferential mode; and, followed by have, in the Prior- 
past tense of the same mode. [Give examples.] 

Shall, shalt. Where should shall be used ? 

Rule 17. It should be used in the Indefinite-future 
tense ; and, followed by have, in the Prior-future tense. 
It should be changed to shalt, when referring to thou* 
[Give examples.) 

Should, shouldst. Where is should to be used ? 

Rule 18. It should be used in the Indefinite tense of 
the Inferential mode ; and, followed by have, in the 
Prior-present tense of the same mode. It should be 
changed to shouldst, when referring to thou. [Give ex- 
amples.] 

Will, wilt. Where should will be used 1 

Rule 19. It should be used in the Indefinite-future 
tense ; and, followed by have, in the Prior-future tense. 
It should be changed to wilt, when referring to thou* 
[Give examples.] 

Would, wouldst. Where is would, to be used ! 

Rule 20. It should be used in the Indefinite lense of the 
Inferential mode; and, followed by have, in the Prior- 
past of the same mode. It should be changed to wouldst, 
when referring to thou. [Give examples.] 

Ought, oughtst. Where should ought be used ? 

Rule 21. When followed by the form of the asserterin 
the Indefinite tense of the Unlimited mode Dependent, it 
may be used, with what form, to constitute the Indefinite 
tense of the Inferential mode 9 and» when followed by the 



FORMATION OF REGULAR ASSERTERS. 125 

form of the asserter in the Prior-past tense of the Unlimit- 
ed mode Dependent, it may be used with that form, to 
constitute the Prior-past tense of the Inferential mode. It 
should be changed to oughtst, when referring to thou. 
[Give examples.] 

RULES, 

For the Formation of Principal Asserters, 

regularly inflected. 

Declarative Mode, or the iNTERROGATivEJformedfrom it. 

How is the Prior-past tense made? 

Rule 1. It is made by giving the primary form an ad- 
ditional syllable ed, adding both letters when the primary 
does not end in e ; and adding d, only, joining it to the e 
of the primary when that ends in c, and prefixing the 
auxiliary had; as, primary form I lift; I love. Prior- 
past tense, I had lift-ed; I had lov-ed; thou hadst lov-ed. 
[Give other examples.] 

How is the Indefinite-past tense made 1 

Rule 2. It is made by giving the primary form the ad- 
ditional syllable ed, changed to edst, when referring to 
thou ; as primary form, I love ; Indefinite-past tense, I 
\ov-ed ; thou \ov-edst: or by prefixing did, to the primary 
form; as, I did ]ove; thou didst love. [Give other ex- 
amples.] 

How is the Prior-present tense made ? 

Rule 3. It is made by giving the primary form the addi- 
tional syllable ed, and prefixing have; changed to hast, 
when referring to thou ; and to has, or hath, when re- 
ferring to a word of the third person and the singular 
form ; as, primary form, I love ; Prior-present, I have 
\oY-ed ; thou hastlov-ed; he has or hath lov-ed. [Give 
other examples.] 

How is the asserter, when in the Present tense, and re- 
ferring to thou, varied from the primary form ? 

Rule 4. It is varied by the additional syllable est, form- 
ed by adding st, to the final e, of the primary ; or by ad- 
ding the entire syllable est, when the primary does not 
end in e; as, primary, I love; I walk. Varied, thou lov- 
est ; thou walk-es£. [Give other examples.] 

11* 



126 FORMATION OF REGULAR A3SERTERS, 

How is the asserter, when in this tense, and referring to 
a word of the third person and the singular form, varied 
from the primary ? 

Rule 5. In ordinary discourse by adding to the primary 
form, the letter 5 ; and in the grave style, bygiving it an 
additional syllable eth ; as primary, I love ; I walk. Varied ; 
lie loves or \ov-eth; he walks or walk-e^A. [The present 
tense of this m< de is often expressed by prefixing do, to 
the primary form ; as, I do love ; thou dost love ; he doth 
or does love.] [Give other examples.] 

How is the Prior-past tense made ? 

Rule 6. It is made by giving the primary form the ad- 
ditional syllable cd, and prefixing have, preceded by 
shall, or will. [Give examples.] 

How is the Indefinite-future tense made ? 

Rule 7. By prefixing to the primary form the shall, 
or will. [Give examples.] 

Inferential Mode, or the Interrogative formed from it, 

How is the Prior-past tense formed ? 

Rule 8. By giving the primary the additional syllable 
ed, and prefixing to it have, preceded by might, could, 
would, should, or ought to. [Give examples.] 

How is the Indefinite tense made? 

Rule 9. By prefixing to the primary form, might, 
could, would, should, must, or ought to. [Give examples.] 

How is the Prior-present tense made 1 

Rule 10. By giving to the primary, the additional syl- 
lable ed, and prefixing have, preceded by may, can, or 
must. [Give examples.] 

How is the Present tense made ? 

Rule 11. By prefixing, to the primary form, may, 
ca?i f or must. [Give examples.] 

Commanding Mode. 
Always in the Present Tense. 

What form of the asserter is used in this mode ? 

Rule 12. The primary form. The auxiliary do, is 
sometimes prefixed to the asserter in this mode as well as 
others, [Give examples.] 



FORMATION OF REGULAR AS3ERTERS. 127 

Unlimited Mode Dependent. 
The Completive and the Continuative Form. 

How is the asserter made in the completive form of the 
Prior-past tense ? 

Kule 13. It is made by giving the primary form the ad- 
ditional syllable ed, and prefixing to have, as an auxiliary. 
[Give examples.] 

How is the asserter made in the completive form of the 
Indefinite tense. 

Rule 14. It is made by prefixing to the primary form 
the word to, as one of the constituent parts of the as- 
serter in this mode and tense. [Give examples.} 

Unlimited Mode Independent. 

How is the asserter made in the Completive form of the 
Prior-past tense 1 

Rule 15. It is made by giving to the primary form the 
additional syllable ed, and prefixing having, as an auxil- 
iary. [Give examples.] 

How is the asserter made in the Completive form of the 
Indefinite tense ? 

Rule 10. It is made by giving the primary form the ad- 
ditional syllable ed [Give examples.] 

Where and how is the Continuative form of all asserters 
made, except that of am or be ? 

Rule 17. It is made in the indefinite tense of this mode, 
by giving the primary form an additional syllable, ing, 
[Am or be has ing added to be] [Give examples.] 

Wh°n is the entire syllable ing, added? 

Rule 18. When the primary form does not end in e. 

It sometimes has the final consonant of the primary 
form repeated and joined to the ing. [Give examples.] 

When the primary ends in e, how is the continuative 
form made ? 

Rule 19. It is made by putting i, into the place of e, 
and adding ng, to form the entire syllable ing. [Give 
examples.] 

How are all asserters in the Continuative form inflected ? 

Rule 20. By being united with the assserter am or be, 
through all its inflections. [Give examples.] 



128 FORMATION OF IRREGULAR A3SERTERS, 



RULES, 

For the formation of Principal Asserters 
Irregularly Inflected. 

Declarative Mode, or the Interrogative formed from it. 

How is the asserter made in the Prior-past tense ? 

Rule 1. By prefixing had, to the form of the asserter 
given in the fourth column of the foregoing table. [Give 
examples.] 

What form of the asserter is used in the Indefinite-past 
tense ? 

Rule 2. That form which is given in the second column 
of the table. It has st, or est, added to it, when referring 
to thou. The primary form preceded by did, is some- 
times used to make this tense, [Give examples.] This 
rule is not applicable to the asserter am or be ; for the 
form of which, in this tense, see Rules 2 and 3, for the use 
of auxiliaries. 

How is the asserter made in the Prior-past tense? 

Rule 3. By prefixing have, to the form of the asserter 
given in the fourth column. [Give examples,] 

How is the asserter made in the present tense 1 

Rule 4. By the use of the primary form only ; or the 
use of that preceded by do, as an auxiliary. [Give ex- 
amples. ] 

How is the asserter in this tense, when referring to 
thou, varied from the primary form ? 

Rule 5. By adding st to the primary form, when that 
ends in c; and est to the primary when it does not end in e. 
[Give examples.] 

How is the asserter varied in this tense, when referring 
to a name or substitute of the third person in the singular 
form \ 

Rule 6. By adding the letter s, to the primary ; or 
giving it an additional syllable, eth. [Give examples.] 
These last three rules are not applicable to the asserter am 
or be ; for the formation of which, in this tense, see Rules 
4 and 5, for the use of auxiliaries. 

How is the Prior-future tense made ? 

Rule 7. By prefixing, to the form given in the fourth 
column, the auxiliary have, preceded by shall or will. 



FORMATION OF IRREGULAR ASSERTERS. 129 

How is the Indefinite-future tense made? 

Rule 8. By prefixing shall, or will, to the primary 
form of all except the asserter am, or be, which is made by 
prefixing shall, or will, to the word be. 

InferentialMode, or the Interrogative formed from it. 

How is the asserter made in the Prior-past tense ? 

Rule 9. By prefixing, to the form in the fourth column, 
the auxiliary have, preceded by might, could, would, 
should, or ought to. [Give examples ] 

How is the asserter made in the Indefinite tense ? 

Rule 10. By prefixing the auxiliary might, could, 
would, should, or ought to, to the primary form of all 
asserters except am or be, which has the word be, with 
the auxiliary prefixed. [Give examples.] 

How is the asserter made in the Prior-present tense ? 

Rule 11. By prefixing to the form in the fourth column, 
the auxiliary have, preceded by may, can, or or must, 
[Give examples.] 

How is the present tense made? 

Rule 12. By prefixing may, can, or must to the 
primary form of all asserters except am or be, which has 
the word be, preceded by the auxiliary. [Give exam- 
ples.] 

Commanding Mode. 

Always in the present tense. 

What form of the asserter is used in this mode? 

Rule 13. The primary form of all asserters, except am 
or be, which has the word be, used. The principals in this 
mode may be preceded by do, as an auxiliary. [Give 
examples.] 

Unlimited Mode Dependent. 

How is the Completive form of the asserter made in the 
Prior-past tense ? 

Rule 14. By prefixing, to the form in the fourth column, 
the auxiliary to have. 

How is the Completive form of the asserter made in the 
Indefinite tense ? 

Rule 15. By prefixing to, as a constituent part of the 
asserter, to the primary form of all asserters except am or 



130 USE OF DEFECTIVE ASSERTERS. 

be, which has the word be, preceded by to. [Give ex- 
amples.] 

Unlimited Mode Independent. 

How is the completive form of the asserter made in the 
Prior-past tense ? 

Rule 16. By prefixing the auxiliary having, to the 
form given in the fourth column. [Give examples.] 

What form of the asserter is used in the completive form 
of the Indefinite tense ? 

Rule 17. That which is given in the fourth column. 
[Give examples.] 

How is the continuative form of the asserter made 1 

Rule 18. By prefixing, in this mode and tense, the ad- 
ditional syllable ing to the primary form of all asserters 
except am or be, which has the word be with the syllable 
ing, added. [Give examples.] 

How is the continuative form of all asserters inflected ? 

Rule 19. By uniting the Continuative, here made with 
the asserter am or be through all its variations. [Give 
examples.] 

RULES, 

For the use of Principal Asserters, Defective 

in their inflection. 

Where may beware be used ? 

Rule 1. It may be used without change of form in the 
Indefinite-future tense of the Declarative mode, in the In- 
definite and the Present tense of the Inferential mode, in 
the Commanding mode, and in the Completive form of the 
Indefinite tense of the Unlimited mode dependent. It is 
never used in the continuative form. 

Where may quoth, be used ? 

Rule 2. It may be used in the Indefinite-past tense of 
the Declarative mode, when referring to a name or substi- 
tute of the third person. It always precedes the word 
on which it depends for sense. 

Where may the other defective asserters be used ? 

Rule 3. They should never be used at all. [Their 
former use cannot now be avoided. To use them, is to 
sacrifice elegance without a counterbalance of gain in 
sense, force, or perspicuity.] 



LESSONS IN PARSING. 131 

N. B. — Every transitive or intransitive asserter, with the 
completive termination, except the defectives, has the same 
form in all the prior tenses, wherever used, that it has in 
the prior-past of the Declarative mode : and all them but 
the Defectives, and am or be, have the primary form, in 
every other place except the indefinite tense of the un- 
limited mode independent and the present tense of the De- 
clarative and the Interrogative formed from it ; and even 
in this except when referring to thou, or a word of the third 
person and singular form. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

[Let the pupil hereafter parse all that he does not find 
parsed for him, and give the definitions all whose defini- 
tions are not given in the parsing.] 

Lesson I. 

My son, be wise and make my heart glad ; that I may 
answer him that reproacheth me. A prudent man fore- 
seeth the evil and hideth himself; but the simple pass on 
and are punished. 

my is a substitute ; standing in the place of a name : simple ; it sim- 
ply supplies the name of the speaker : common ; it is a term common to 
both sexes : of the first person ; it denotes the speaker or writer as such : 
in'the singular form ; it denotes but one : in the possessive case ; it repre- 
sents the person denoted by it as having or possessing something : and 
precedes, and depends on the name son, denoting the object possessed 
like the term my, in the side link of plate I. 

sow is a name ; a term by which an object is known : general ; it re- 
presents the class or kind [of relations] to which the object denoted by 
it, belongs : masculine ; it denotes a male : of the second person ; it de- 
notes the object addressed or spoken of; in the singular form ; it denotes 
but one : singular, son ; plural, sons .* it is regular ; it forms the plural 
by adding s to the singular : in the subjective case ; it represents the per- 
son denoted by it as being the subject of remark ; it answers the ques- 
tion who ? and has the asserter be, depending on it for sense, like the 
term I, in the staple of plate I. 

be is an asserter ; it is a part of speech used to assert : intransitive ; it 
refers to the mere existence of the subject : in the commanding mode ; the 
mode used to express command : in the present tense denoting a present 
command ; or command in the present time . irregular it does not 
make its past tenses from the primary form by the addition of d or ed~ 
it refers to, and depends on the name son. [See sell in the large link of 
plate I.] 

wise is an adname ; a word added to the name son to show the quality 



132 LESSONS IN PARSING. 

which the person mentioned, is exhorted or commanded to have pertain- 
ing to him, and belongs to, and depends on the name son. [See the side 
link of plate II.] 

and is a connective ; joining the two asserters be, and make with their 
appendant words. 

Make is an asserter; transitive; in the Commanding mode in the 
present tense in the completive form ; irregularly ; connected by and 
with the asserter be and depending for sense on the name son. 

my is parsed like the other my. 

heart is a name ; general ; neuter ; of the third person ; in the sin- 
gular form ; heart— hearts ; regular; in the objective case and depends 
on the transitive asserter makes. [See the name books in the first ring of 
plate I.] 

glad is an adname ; from its referring particularly to the condition of 
the heart : it is a modifier ; it refers to the manner of the heart's being 
constituted glad : it is a modifying adname. 

that is a connective ; joining together the two parts of the sentence. 

1 is a substitute ; simple ; common ; of the first person : in the singu- 
lar form ; in the subjective case : having may answer ; depending on it 
for sense. [See / in the staple of plate I.] 

may answer is an asserter ; it is a part of speech used to assert : 
transitive ; it represents the fact denoted by it as extending from the 
subject of remark to an object : regular it forms its past tenses from the 
primary by adding ed : in the inferential mode ; it does not declare that 
the fact denoted by the principal asserter [answer j has been or will be 
accomplished : in the present tense it denotes (when joined only to the 
word on which it depends) present liberty : and depends for sense on 
the^ubstitute /. [See sell in the large link, plate I.] 

him is a substitute ; simple ; masculine ; of the third person ; in the 
singular form: in the objective case ; and depending for sense on the 
asserter may answer. [See books in the first ring of plate I. 

that is a substitute ; it is a word substituted for a name : connective ; 
it also acts the part of a connective, in joining together the two parts of 
the sentence ; [I may answer him, is one sentence. He reproacheth me, 
is another. Who ] reproacheth me 1 He does it] It is in the subjec- 
tive case ; from its denoting the subject of remark ; the same as the 
term he would, if used : and has the asserter reproacheth depending on 
it for sense in the same manner that / in the staple of plate I, has sell in 
the large link depending on it. 

reproacheth is an asserter; transitive; regular; in the declara- 
tive mode ; in the present tense ; and depends for sense on the connec- 
tive substitute that. [See sell in the large link of plate I.] 

me is a substitute ; simple ; common ; of the first person ; in the sin- 
gular form ; in the objective case ; depending on the transitive assertei 
reproacheth. [See books in the first ring of plate I.] 

Lesson II. 

The wicked flee when no man pursueth ; but the righ- 
teous are as bold as a lion. When the righteous are in 
authority, the people rejoice : but when the wicked rule, 



CORRECTION AND PARSING. 133 

the people mourn. Remove far from me vanity and lies. 
Give me neither poverty nor riches : lest I should be poor 
and steal, and take the name of my God in vain : or lest 
I should be full, and deny thee ; and say, ''Who is the 
Lord ?" 

[Remove and give in this lesson, are in the Commanding 
mode absolute, having no words on which to depend for 
sense.] 

Lesson III. 

William persuaded John to accompany him to New Or- 
leans. Seth was at home when I sent Richard to see him. 
I have been writing since I saw James at Hartford. . He 
is engaged to return to New York in the month of May. 
Will Henry call on me while he shall be journeying South. 
John ; hand my book to your brother. 1 had seen Wil- 
liam several times before I met him in Buffalo. I will visit 
James to-morrow ; when I hope to see him engraving 
Washington's portrait. 

Lesson IV. 

Jane can write very elegantly. Juliet excels her cousin 
in working lace. John should pay his debts as early as 
he can. Henry ought to accompany Maria to school. He 
might have gone earlier ; but he chose to delay, that he 
might see Zedekiah start for Philadelphia. Robert can 
not have arrived in Washington yet. He must, however, 
have left Philadelphia before this time. 

Lesson V. 
[For correction and Parsing.] 

John ; where was you when I called to see you ? I 
were gone to Windsor, but if I had known that you would 
call I would not have went. Though I were sorry to see 
you there, yet, I was glad that you was on a pleasant and 
profitable tour. If I be under obligation to any man you 
be he. Johnson done my work very well ; for I stood by 
and seen how it was doing. 

Lesson VI. 

" Friend," if thou be tired of listening, I will cease to 
read. If thou has known Seth and will call at his house, thou 

12 



134 CORRECTION AND PARSING. 

can get the money for me. Does thou hate deceit ? Why 
then will thou practice it. If thou would consent, I would 
take thy horse and carriage to carry me to Harlem. If 
thou would be happy thou should cease to do wrong : for 
while thou sins against thy neighbor thou can not expect 
that thy neighbor will forgive thee. [Beauties of G. 
Brown's grammar. See pages 56 — 57 of that grammar.} 

j£ Lesson VII. 

I had began the work before John had called to see it* 
I was setting on the bench at work when he come in. I 
ris to meet him and welcomed him, though I were not quite 
ready to have him call for the work. I beseeched to have 
patience ; for I had been so busily engaged with the work 
that I had not eat my dinner. He said he had became tired 
of waiting* f 

Lesson VIII. 

The boys Mowed the dust out of Henry's eyes and he 
become quiet again, William come running home from 
school yesterday afternoon, He had forgot to bring his 
books with him. The boiler of the engine was burstcd. 
Richard digged a well and drunk the water of it. He had 
freezed both his feet while finishing it, and by that means 
he was bereaved of the means for supporting his family. 

Lesson IX. 

I eat my dinner yesterday before two o'clock. I sot by 
the table half an hour till John had ate all the fruit, and 
till all the water had been drunken. The Canary bird had 
flew away from the cage. Henry had forbore a long 
time to reply to Seth's remarks. John would have gotten 
a dollar per bushel for his apples if he had knowed the mar- 
ket price. The murderer was hanged for his crime. " The 
tomb had been" hewed " out of a rock." Horace hitted 
the mark every time that he shot. Seth had laid in bed 
two hours longer than he had been accustomed to lay. 

Lesson X. 

" The sea-fowl has" went " to her nest. 
The lion is laid down in his lair." 



CORRECTION AND PARSING. 135 

I lay the book on John's table yesterday morning where 
he had lain it before. Robert : can Henry have ridden as 
far as Albany by this time 1 Has William ever knowed me ? 
The board might be divided by being sawed in the middle. 
Hugh meaned well enough, but he failed in execution. The 
horse had not been shoed well in a long time, when I 
sot Julius at the task. Edward might have showed me the 
whole house. William ; shet the door. " I have shot it 
once," I had sat down, and had began to read, when 
Gilbert come in. John had sat the trees in the wrong 
place. Ned sleeped all day. 

Lesson XL 

The thief had stole a horse and escaped. Zenos stringed 
his harp, and played. Byron had only swam across the 
strait, when he became sick. Selh had thriven by his in- 
dustry and frugality which with honesty add to competence, 
comfort and respect. As the sailor swinged off he seized 
another rope and saved himself. Xerxes weeped to think 
that within one hundred years all his army would cease to 
exist. The vile gambler had winned the bet which ruined 
his associate. 

Lesson XII. 
Robert ; set in that chair, and sit the candle beside you. 
I have saw you before, I think, Sir. u Very likely. I be- 
lieve I seen you at Oswego." The men was taking up the 
bridge when William come along and wanted to cross. 
He tried to persuade them to git some of the old planks, 
and lie them down, so that he could pass. The telled him 
they would, if he were willing to pay them for doing it. He 
said he want willing to pay them for doing their duty, but 
would always accept with grateful civility, what he might 
demand as justice. They was pleased with this remark, 
and replaced the planks. I wot not what can be done to 
prevent death. William, I trow, thinks death only the be- 
ginning of life, not the cessation of it. John, I wist, will 
be shipwrecked and perish. 



136 ADNAMES. 

CHAPTER VII. 

ADNAMES. 

What is an Adname? 

It is a part of speech added to a name or substitute, to 
show the quality, class or condition of the object which 
the name or substitute represents ; or how that object is 
to be considered whether generally or particularly, 

Of how many kinds are Adnames ? 

They are of seven ; Qualifying, Specifying, Interroga- 
tive, Exclamatory, Negative, Assertive, and Modifying; 
each of which (whatever its subdivision) is to be used to 
express an idea corresponding with its name and definition, 

Qualifying Adnames. 

What is a Qualifying Adname 1 

It is one which shows the quality, condition, or class 
of the object to which it refers ; as, a good man, a sweet 
apple. John is happy. A wooden wheel. 

In how many different forms are most qualifying ad- 
names used ? 

They are used in four; the Simple, Comparative, Su- 
perlative, and Diminutive. They are also calledRegular* 
Irregular and Defective. 

What does the Simple form of a qualifying adname 
show ? 

It shows the rank or quality of one object without refer- 
ence to that of another ; as, a good man ; a wise man ; a 
sweet apple. 

What does the Comparative form represent ? 

It represents the rank or quality of one object as com- 
pared with that of another; as, a better man; a wis-er 
man ; a sweet-er apple. 

What does the Superlative form represent I 

It represents an object as excceeding all others in the 
rank or quality referred to ; as, the best man ; the wis-es£ 
man ; the sweet-est apple. 

What does the Diminutive form of an adname or com- 
bination of adnames represent? 

It represents, without the idea of the direct comparison 
of objects, a diminution from the state or quality which the 
simple form of the adname denotes ; as, Simple form, red, 



DECLENSION OP ADNAMES. 137 

bine, strong : Diminutive form, reddish, bluish, somewhat 
strong. 

Which of the qualifying adnames that are declinable 
may be declined regularly 1 

All, of two syllables, that end in y, may be declined 
regularly by exchanging y for i and adding er and est ; as, 
Simple form, holy, happy : Comparative form, hoKer, hap- 
pier : Superlative form, holiest, happiest. 

All, except little, that end in le with the e not sounded, 
by adding r and st ; as, Simple form, simple, humble, gen- 
tle : Comparative form, simpler, humbler, gentler : Super- 
lative form, simplest, humbled, gentlest 

All of one syllable, except those mentioned as irregular 
and those whose sound would be unpleasant. 

All others that are declinable are to be declined irre- 
gularly. Those which may be declined regularly, may 
also have the irregular declension ; as wise, wiser or more 
wise ; wisesf or most wise ; happy, happier or more happy ; 
happiest or most happy. 

Declension of Adnames. 

What is the declension of adnames ? 

It is varying their forms to represent different degrees 
of the rank or quality of the objects to which they refer. 

What adnames are called Regular? 

Those which have their Comparative form made by the 
addition of r, or er, to the Simple form; and their Super- 
lative by adding st or est ; a§, Simple, wise, great ; Com- 
parative, wis-er, great-er ; Superlative, wis-es£, great-est. 

What adnames are called Irregular ? 

Those which are not declined by the addition of r, or er t 
and st, or est, to the Simple form ; but have their Com- 
parative and Superlative forms made, either by associating 
with them the words more and most ; or by a. change of the 
entire words; as, Simple, elegant, good; Comparative, 
more elegant, better ; Superlative, most elegant, best. 

What adnames are called Defective 1 

Those which denote substances of which things are com- 
posed ; or denote, in the simple form, the extent of sense 
which the adname is capable of expressing ; and which, 
consequently, cannot be used in these different forms with- 
out a violation of sense ; and are of course, not declinable : 
as, golden, woollen, round, square, boundless, infinite. 

12* 



138 



DECLENSION OF ADNAMES. 



Examples in Declensions. 

Dimin. form. Simple form. Comp. form. Super, form. 

Whitish white whiter whitest 

Bluish blue bluer bluest 

Yellowish yellow yellower yellowest 

Examples of Regular Adnames. 

Simple form. Comparative form. Superlative form. 

Able abler ablest 

Bright brighter brightest 

Happy happier happiest 

Heavy heavier heaviest 

Light lighter lightest 

Slow slower slowest 

Examples of Irregular Adnames. 
They are of two classes. First, Those which are de- 
clined by having more and most, associated with them ; as, 



Simp. form. 
Acid 
Awful 
Blithesome 



Comp* form. 
more acid 
more awful 
more blithesome 



Sup. form. 
most acid 
most awful 
most blithesome 



Second ; those which are declined by a change of the 
entire words. 



Simp. form. 

Bad 

Good , 

Little 

Equal* 

Equal 



Comp. form. 
worse ... 
better 
less 

superior 
inferior 



Sup. form. 

worst 

best 

least 

supreme, or chief 

least 



Examples of Defective Names. 
Brazen Omnipotent Absent 

Round Omnipresent Wooden 

Infinite Perfect Pecuniary 

Boundless Present Golden 

* Equal denotes not a quality, but rank with respect to quality, and 
supposes a comparison even in the Simple form ; while the other two 
forms give a different representation with respect to the same rank or 
quality. 



ADNAMES PRIMARY AND SECONDARY. 139 

What adnames are prefixed to the simple form and as- 
sociated with it, to represent a comparative diminution 
from the state or quality of an object which is denoted by 
the simple form ? 

Less is prefixed to make the Comparative, and least, 
to make the Superlative form ; as, Simple form ; able, 
wise, happy : Comparative form ; less able, less wise, less 
happy : Superlative form ; least able, least wise, least 
happy. 

Double Comparatives and Superlatives ; [such as more 
happier, most happiest] are never to be used. 

What other distinctive appellations have qualifying ad- 



names 



? 



They are called Primary and Secondary. 

What is a Primary qualifying adname ? 

It is one which makes sense, when taken only with the 
name or substitute on which it depends ; and shows the 
quality, class, or condition of the object denoted by the 
name or substitute ; as, a good man ; a sweet apple : a fine 
horse. 

Any adname is Primary, which makes sense without 
another adname's intervening between that and the word 
on which it depends ; as This man : a man : ten men. 

What is a Secondary qualifying adname ? 

It is one which is prefixed to a primary adname to qua- 
lify the sense expressed by it, and which extends its influ- 
ence through the primary, to the object to which that re- 
fers ; as, a truly good man ; a very sweet apple ; a remark- 
ably fine horse. [Some of these are declined, in combina- 
tion with the primary, by associating with them more 
and most; as, Simple form of the combination, truly 
good ; Comparative form more truly good ; Superlative 
form, most truly good.] 

Of how many classes are Secondary adnames ? 

Three ; First, Second, and Third ; named according to 
their nearness to, or distance from, the Primary. 

Is a primary qualifying adname that changes its form in 
becoming a secondary, or a modifier, ever to be used, in 
its primary form, as a secondary adname? 

No. The following examples are, therefore wrong. I 
saw a great many folks at the fair ; a good many of whom 
purchased articles offered for sale. 



140 



PLATE III. 



May names be used either with, or without, adnames to 
constitute secondary adnames ? 

Yes; as John is jive years older than Henry, William 
is two inches taller than Seth. 



Fig. l. 




EXPLANATION OF PLATE III. 141 

The foregoing plate illustrates the immediate dependence of the pri- 
mary adname on the name ; and the intermediate connexion of the pri- 
mary with the secondary adname, and the name to which the secondary 
is attached, through the medium of the primary ; Thus, 

1. The primary adname is attached immediately to the name denoting 
the object to which it refers ; as black in figure 2 : which adname {black) 
is attached to the name to represent the color of the cloth as being nearer 
the hue known as black, than any other color having a name ; as being 
darker than brown, green, or blue. The primary adname : remember, 
makes sense when taken only with the name denoting the object to 
which it refers. 

2. The secondary adname of the first class, is attached to a primary, as 
the connecting link between that and the name to which both the pri- 
mary and secondary belong ; as, deep, [in figures 3, 4 and 5 ;] that qualifies 
the sense expressed by the primary adname (black) and through the prima- 
ry gives a different representation of the quality which that, as the start- 
ing point, denotes ; the expression deep black cloth, representing a shade 
of color, in the cloth, different from (and darker than) that which the ex- 
pression, black cloth, would denote. 

3. A secondary adname of the second class, qualifies the sense express- 
ed by the two following adnames, and through them, as the medium or 
connecting links, gives still an additional representation of the quality 
which the primary denotes; as remarkably, [in figures 4 and 5,] that quali- 
fies the sense expressed by, deep and black, and with them, belongs to, 
and depends on, the name cloth, on which they, without remarkably, (do, 
as here used,) belong. 

4 A secondary adname of the third class, qualifies the sense express- 
ed by the following adnames, which act unitedly, (though still acting in 
their individual capacities,) as the medium or connecting links by whose 
use and intervention the influence of the former is enabled to reach the 
name, and thereby to assist the other adnames, in describing the quality 
of the object which the name denotes ; as very [in figure 5 ;] that qualifies 
the sense of each (in turn) and all (at last) of the following adnames, and, 
by being attached (by them as the medium) to the name cloth, throws 
the force of its expression upon the name, and thus extends it to the ob- 
ject denoted by the name : to which name the primary adname black, and, 
by means of that, the secondaries deep, remarkably and very do, unitedly, 
belong. 

The secondaries have no sense or application without the primaries.* 
Several primaries, with or without secondaries, may follow each other, 
and belong to, and depend on, the same name or substitute ; as, John 
was a deeply learned, very modest, upright, and active man. 

Specifying Adnames. 

What are Specifying Adnames ? 

They are those which specify the number or order of 

* To throw out the link / lack, and say deep cloth, or remarkably deep cloth, 
would be nonsense : while to throw out the links deep and black, and say re- 
markably cloth, or very remarkably cloth, would seem ridiculous. 



142 SPECIFYING ADNAMES. 

things, or how they are to be considered ; whether sepa- 
rately or inclusively, particularly or generally. 

Of how many classes are Specifying adnames ? 

They are of five ; Numeral, Ordinal, Distributive, Defi- 
nite, and Indefinite. 

What does a Numeral specifying adname show ? 

It shows the number of the objects referred to ; as two 
men ; ten men. 

What do Ordinal specifying adnames show? 

They show the order, with respect to number, in which 
the objects referred to are to be considered or taken : as, 
the second man ; the tenth man. James gave me every 
fifteenth apple. 

Where a Numeral and an Ordinal specifying adname are 
to be used together, which is to precede the other in the 
sentence, and act as a secondary adname ? 

The Ordinal ; as, William read the first three verses of 
the hymn.* 

What do the Distributive specifying adnames denote ? 

They denote that the objects referred to, are to be re- 
garded separately or singly. They are each, every, either 
and neither ; as, each man ; every man. [Each and every 
mean both or all of the objects referred to. Either means 
not both, or all, but one or the other ; and neither means 
not either,] 

For what is a Definite specifying adname used? 

To mark more definitely some particular object or class, 
or collection of objects ; as, This man. Those men. 
Hudson river. 

Which are the Principal adnames of this class? 

They are this, and that; exchanged, when referring to 
plural names, for these and those ; former, latter, which, 
said, aforesaid, afore-mentioned, the, the same, and Parti- 
cular names, used as adnames ; as, Oneida county; Ore- 
gon territory ; Paris fashions. Other words may be used 
as Definitive specifying adnames, which can be known by 
the sense. 

What rule is to be observed in the use of the as con- 

* As the verses necessarily succeed each other, there can be but one 
first verse, and to say sing the three first would be very absurd. The 
ordinal is also to be used in particularizing which (in relation to number) 
is meant ; as, the fifth verse : page twenty-fourth. 



SPECIFYING ADNAMES. 143 

trasted with this, and that, and their plurals these and 
those. j 

The is to be used in a subsequent sentence in referring 
to an object described in a foregoing sentence ; and in 
referring to an object to be particularly described by the 
use of the and a connective substitute ; as, I met a person 
when I was returning from church. I think that James is 
the man. John ate the apple, and kept the pear which I 
had given him. This and that or their plurals should be 
used when we would define, without prior reference, 
some particular object or objects; as, James will read 
these rules ; and will, I think, remember this one. 

When these words are to be used in preference to the, 
and in referring to objects contrasted, this and these 
are to refer to what is near us, or last mentioned ; that and 
those to what is more distant, or first mentioned ; as John 
will take these books, and leave those. Washington and 
Greene were compatriots. That man was commander-in- 
chief. This was a major-general. 

This and that refer to single objects ; these and those to 
several. 

What are the Indefinite specifying adnames ? 

They are those which specify or denote that the objects to 
which they refer, are to be considered or taken indefinitely 
or generally ; as, some man ; any man ; all men ; a man ; an 
apple. 

What rule can be given with respect to the use of a, and 
an, considered with respect to each other ? 

A is to be used before a word beginning with a conso- 
nant sound ; as, a hundred men ; a house ; a university. 

An is to be used before a word beginning with a vowel 
sound ; as, an apple ; an under-ground room ; an ant- 
eater. 

Which are the principal Indefinite specifying adnames ? 

They are a, an, one (when not referring particularly to 
number) some, other, another, any, all, such, several, little 
(when referring to quantity, not size) much, many, enough* 
sufficient, few, whole, whatever, whatsoever, and which- 
ever. 

Which of these are declinable ? 

Some, little, few, several, much, and many. 



144 



ADNAMES. 



Declension on Indefinite Specifying Adnames. 

Simple form. Com. form. Sup. form. 

more most 

less least 

less least 

fewer or less fewest or least 

more most 

more most 

more most 



Some 

Some 

Little 

Few 

Several 

Much 

Many 

Which words of 
like names ? 

One, other and another, 
stitutes ; as, 

Singular form. 
Subj. form, One, 
Poss. form, One's [books] 
Obj. form, One, 

Singular form. 
Subj. form, Other, 
Poss. form, Other's [book] 
Obj. form, Other, 

Subj. form, Another, 

Poss. form, Another's [book] 



the list of the Indefinite are declined 
when used as Adname sub- 
Plural form. 
Subj. form, Ones, 
Poss. form, Ones' [books] 
Obj. form, Ones. 
Plural form. 
Subj. form, Others, 
Poss. form, Others' [books] 
Obj. form, Others. 

> The plural form is wanting. 



Obj. form, Another. 

Interrogative Adnames. 

What are Interrogative adnames ? 

They are words prefixed to names to express interroga- 
tion ; as, which apple is sour 1 What fruit do you prefer t 
[ Which and what are the only words of this class.] 

Exclamatory Adname. 

What is an Exclamatory adname? 

It is a word prefixed to a name in a sentence of exclama- 
tion, only to give force to the expression ; as, What a 
painful truth that was ! What a villain Ned is ! [ What is 
the only word of this kind.] 

Negative Adname. 

What is a Negative adname ? 

It is a word added to a name only to exert a negative 
influence on its meaning ; as, no vicious man can ever be 
happy. [No is the only word of this kind.] 



exercises in parsing. 145 

Assertive Adnames. 

What is an Assertive adname ? 

It is a word which is prefixed to a name, and which par- 
takes of the natures of an asserter and an adname at the 
same time ; as, a flowing brook ; a roaring cataract ; a 
shrivelled form. A blooming rose. 

Modifying Adnames. 

What is a Modifying adname 1 

It is a word which acts the parts of a modifier and an 
adname at the same time ; as, I held my hand open. He 
appeared walking erect. I left John alone. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

[Let the pupil recur to the chart and explain the various 
distinctions as given.] 

Lesson I. 

Horace purchased five very large apples ; and gave then? 
to Julia. 

Horace is a name ; particular ; masculine ; of the third person ; in 
the singular form ; in the subjective case, having the asserter purchased 
depending on it for sense. [Compare its position with that of J in the 
staple of plate I.] 

purchased is an asserter ; transitive ; in the declarative mode ; in 
the indefinite-past tense ; in the completive form ; regular ; and depends 
for sense on the name Horace. [Compare its dependence with that of 
sell in the large link of plate I.] 

£ five is an adname ; specifying ; numeral ; and depends for sense on 
the name apples, representing the objects whose number it denotes 
[Compare its dependence with that of black, figure 2, plate III. 

very is an adname ; qualifying ; secondary ; of the first class ; it qua- 
lifies the sense expressed by the term large, and with that term, belongs 
to, and depends on, the name apples. [Compare its dependence with 
that of deep; figure 3, plate III.] 

large is an adname ; qualifying ; primary ; in the simple form ; 
(simple, large ; comparative, larger ; superlative, largest;) regular ; and 
belongs to, and depends on, the name apples. [Compare its dependence 
with that of black, figure 3, plate III.] 

apples is a name ; general ; neuter ; of the third person ; in the 
plural form ; (singular, apple ; plural apples ;) regular; in the objective 
case ; and depends for sense on the asserter purchased. [Compare j&c 
dependence with that of books in the first ring of plate I.] 

and is a connective ; it connects, as here used, the asserters gave and 

13 



146 LESSONS IN PARSING. 

purchased, with the words depending on them, respectively ; and therebj 
represents both actions as having been performed by Horace. 

gave is an asserter ; transitive; in the declarative mode; in the in- 
definite- past tense ; in the completive form ; irregular; and is connected 
by and with the asserler purchased ; and depends for sense on the name 
Horace, on which that depends. 

them is a substitute ; simple ; common, but applied to neutral objects ; 
of the third person ; in the plural form ; in the objective case, denoting 
the objects of the action expressed by the asserter gave, (Hf which it de- 
pends for sense. [Compare its dependence with that of books in the 
first ring of plate I.] 

to JcMA is an appendant phrase, joined by means of the relative to, to* 
the other part of the sentence. [Remember that in every appendant 
phrase you will rind a word in the objective case.] 

to is a relative ; showing the relation that existed between the event 
of Horace' giving the apples, and Julia, as the person to whom 
they were given ; thereby representing her as being related to that 
event. 

Julia is a name ; particular ; feminine ; of the third person ; in the 
singular form ; and in the objective case, representing the person Julia v 
as being the object of the relation, expressed by the relative to. [See 
the dependence of words in th.£ objective case^oa relativeSi illustrated by 
plates I and II] 

Lesson IX. 

Seth ; you are five years older than Mary ; who is, her* 
self, a few days older than Harriet. My highway fence is 
it hundred and fifty feet less than Richard's. Stone fence 
is the best kind- Julia's father is a very remarkably good 
agriculturist. 

Seth is a name ;. particular ; masculine ; of the second person ; in 
the singular form ; in the independent case : it stands free from any 
Constructive dependence on the sentence following it. [Compare 
lis position, with respect to the sentence, with that of John, at the head 
of plate I, and Jane, at the head of plate If. J 

you is a substitute ; simple ; common ; [it is a term which is common 
to Wth sexes;] but applied to a male ; of the second person ; in the plu- 
ral form ; [so called because it is the form which must be used when we 
WDttld represent plurality. See appendix.] Applied to a single object ; 
in the subjective case - r and has the asserter are depending on it for sense, 
f Compare its relation to the sentence with that of /, in the staple, plate I, 
or James, in the staple of plate II] 

ARE is an asserter ; intransitive ; [as the asserter am or he and its va- 
riations are without the continuative form, with the exception of the 
word being, it is unnecessary to name those distinctions of form (the com- 
pletive and the continuative) except when using the word being as an as- 
serter.] in the declarative mode : in the present tense ; and depends for 
sense on the substitute you. [Compare its dependence with that of the 
alerters in the laTgo'Jinks of plates I. and II.] 



LESSONS IN PARSING. 147 

five is an adname ; specifying; numeral; and belongs to, and de- 
pends on, the terra years, as a name. 

years is a name. [It can be parsed in all its peculiarities as a name, 
with the exception of case, which, as a name it loses in its office as an 
adname ] It is used with the adname five, to constitute, with that, a 
secondary qualifying adname ; it qualifies the sense expressed by the 
term older, and belongs, with that, to the substitute you, on which that 
depends. 

older is an adname; qualifying; primary; in the simple form; 
{Simple form, old; Comparative form, older; Superlative, olde.v/, or eldest;} 
regular ; and refers to, it depends on, the substitute you, that denotes 
the person whose age is referred to. 

than is a connective ; joining the name Mary to the preceding part of 
the sentence; and showing, by its comparative and connective influence, 
that the person denoted by that name, is one of the subjects of com- 
parison. 

Mary is a name; particular; feminine ; of the third person ; in the 
singular form ; and the subjective case ; representing the person de-» 
noted by it, as being one of the subjects of the comparative remark ; and, 
being used after the term than, in general reference to the asserter ..re, it 
has no asserter immediately depending on it for sense. [See in Cnap- 
ter X. the remarks on than and us, as *• modifying connectives."] 

who is a substitute ; connective. It admits no other distinctions ex> 
cept case. [To determine the case, follow the directions given in Chap 
ter V. page 69. Thus, Seth ; you are older than Mary — one sentence. 
She, or Mary, is, herself, a few days older than Harriet — the other sen- 
tence. In this sentence, the simple subs itute she, if used, or the name 
Mary, if repeated, would be in the subjective case, and have the asserter 
is, depending on it for sense Then, as a connective substitute (with the 
exception marked on page 69) must be in the same case as the simple 
substitute would be, if used, or the name, if repeated.] Who must be in 
the subjective case, and have the asserter is depending on it for sense. 

is is an asserter ; intransitive ; in the declarative mode ; in the present 
tense ; and depends for sense on the connective substitute who. 

herself is a substitute : simple; emphatic; feminine; of the third 
person ; in the singular form ; in the subjective case ; given in addition to 
the term who, to mark, more emphatically, the person denoted by that 
term: and sustains to the following part of the sentence ihe same rela- 
tion that is sustained by who which represents the same object. 

a is an adname ; specifying ; indefinite ; secondary and belongs to, anJ 
exerts its influence on, the adname few ; and by that means extends its re- 
lation, dependence, and influence to the name days ; to which, in the plural 
form, it could not belong, without an intervening primary adname. 

few is an adname ; specifying ; indefinite ; [it is declinable ; Simple 
few; Comp. fewer; Sup. fewest: it belongs to, and depends on, days 
as a name of the periods of lime denoted by it; while yet, 

days of itself considered, is a name; general; neuter; of the third 
person ; in the plural form ; it is regular ; it loses, in its adname capa- 
city, its relations of case, and constitutes with the adnames a and /.w\ a 
secondary qualifying adname ; qualifying the sense expressed by the 



148 LESSONS IN PARSING. 

primary adname older, and belongs, as a secondary adname, with the 
primary older, to the substitute who to which older belongs. 

older is parsed as the word older preceding ; except that it depends 
on the substitute who representing the person Harriet instead of the 
name Mary denoting another person. 

than and Harriet are parsed exactly like the preceding than and 
Mary, 

Note 1. In the next sentence of this lesson, a is a secondary adname 
belonging to hundred, and thereby belonging to the ^name feet; while 
hundred and fifty, whether taken separately or unitedly are primary, and, 
being joined to each other by the connective and, they both belong as 
one primary to the name feet as a name ; which in its adname capacity, 
acts, with the combination, a hundred and fifty as one secondary adname, 
to qualify the sense expressed by the primary adname less, and belongs, 
with that, to the name fence, on which they both depend for sense. 

Note 2. Richard's is a name, in the twofold case ; representing 
both a possessor and the thing possessed. In its subjective relation to 
the sentence it is parsed after the term than, like the name Harriet, not 
having an asserter after it, depending on it for sense. 

Note 3. A in the next sentence is a primary adname belonging to 
the name agriculturist while good is a primary, remarkably, a secon- 
dary of the first class, and very, a secondary of the second class ; alt 
belonging to, and depending on, the name agriculturist denoting th© 
object whose quality they unitedly represent* 

Lesson III. 

Hiram is somewhat careless with respect to his personal 
appearance ; but I hope he will amend. The soil of the 
southern part of the country is of a reddish hue. Richard is 
more studious than Robert. Seth gave me much fruit ; but 
William gave me more. Giles lent me more than twenty- 
dollars. I lost less than five dollars by trading with the 
stranger. 

Note, more than, and less than, as used in this lesson are, re- 
spectively, secondary adnames, qualifying the sense expressed by their 
respective primaries, twenty and five, and belonging with them to the 
terms to which they belong. They are used in this sense when they 
refer to the qualities or quantities of things, without having than act the 
part of a connective. When the combination more than, or less than, acts 
the part of an adname, it must precede the term to which it refers ; and 
the two words of the combination, must stand beside each other. 

Lesson IV« 

The period of life is short in which man must prepare 
himself for the duties of active life. We should, therefore, 
never waste a moment of time in idleness; or in such amuse- 



LESSONS IN PARSING. 149 

ment as would unfit us for the performance of our parts in 
the great theatre of life. 

Tne upright man secures the respect and esteem of the 
good, and the veneration of the vile who stand in awe of 
his virtues. Manly habits, without tedious or dull for- 
mality, shouid characterize the young. Open and candid 
deportment, and vivacity without levity of mind, should be 
among the characteristics of middle-aged persons ; and 
cheerfulness and serenity of mind, should gild the mild 
radiance of life's decline. 

Lesson V. 

Youthful follies are seeds, sown in the spring of hunan 
life, that must, in vigorous manhood produce thorns and 
thistles, which will bestrew our pathway in the decline of 
life when we shall be too feeble to remove them. 

''Virtuous youth gradually brings forward accomplished 
and flourishing manhood ; and that manhood, passes of it- 
self, without uneasiness in respectable and tranquil old-age." 

" Vice poisons our felicity in the bud, by introducing 
disorders into the heart." 

Lesson VI. 

The hoary head is a crown of glory, if it is found in the 
way of righteousness. A wise servant shall have rule over 
the foolish son that causeth shame. The poor man that 
walketh in his integrity, is better than the rich who is per- 
verse in his way. A wise son maketh glad his father; but 
a foolish son is the heaviness and grief of his mother. 

Better is a little, with righteousness, than great revenues 
without right. A discreet woman retaineih honor ; as 
strong men retain riches. As is a jewel of gold in a 
swine's snout; so is the beauty of a woman without dis- 
cretion. — Bible. 

Lesson VII. 
The liberal soul shall be satisfied ; and he that feedeth 
others/shall, himself, be filled. The simple have folly as 
their portion ; but prudent men are crowned with know- 
ledge. The mouth of the righteous man is a well of life 
to those around him ; but a prating fool shall fall. 

Happy is the man that findeth wisdom, and that getteth 

13* 



150 CORRECTION AND PARSING. 

understanding. She is more precious than rubies : yea, 
ail other things that thou canst desire, are not to be com- 
pared with her. Length of days is in her right hand, and 
m her left hand, riches and honor. Her ways are ways of 
pleasantness, and all her paths are peace. — Bible. 

Lesson VIIL 

[For correction and Parsing.] 

A great many men prefer idleness and want, to industry 
and comfort. A good many persons are more readier to re- 
ceive favours, than to reciprocate them. John read the three 
first books of Virgil. I spoke to the two last men I met. 
Samuel read the hymn on page three hundred and sixty- 
five. Richard is the agreeablest child which I have seen. 
Seth is the most unhappiest man that I have seen this ten 
weeks. Henry is more perfect in his attainments than 
John. 

Lesson IX. 

[For correction and Parsing.] 

I have a more prettier Canary bird than John has. His 
is the most ugliest thing in appearance that I have seen. 
I have seen a great many, almost as homely as his. Helen 
is beautifuler than Julia, and she is more happier than 
Helen. John is disagree ablier than William, in his 
deportment, because he is austerer* 

Lesson X. 

[For correction and Parsing.] 

James bought an hundred shade trees. I visited a per- 
son who was called a honest man, and an humble Chris- 
tian,, He resided with a upright neighbor very nearly re- 
sembling himself. I like those kind of folks. William 
ig that man whom I met in Utica. Seth and Henry are 
those men of whom I rent my house. July 4th is that day 
of the year on which our ancestors declared the nation Free 
..4>nd Independent. Flowers bloom in wild luxuriance, on 
either side of the river. 



MODIFIERS. 151 

CHAPTER VIII. 

MODIFIER. 

What is a Modifier ? 

It is a part of speech used to modify the sense or sound, 
not of one particular word merely, but of the whole sen- 
tence or clause of the sentence in which it occurs ; as, James 
speaks fluently in debate. John was not at home when I 
called yesterday. Seth writes elegantly when he tries to 
write well. 

Declension of Modifiers. 

What is the Declension of modifiers ? 

It is changing their forms for a different representation 
of the facts or events to which they refer. 

In how many different forms are declinable modifiers or 
combinations of them used ? 

They are used in four ; the Simple, Comparative Super- 
lative and Diminutive. 

What does the Simple form of the modifier show T 

It shows the time or manner of one fact or event without 
reference to that of another; as, James speaks fluently* 
George visits us often. 

What does the Comparative form represent? 

It represents the time and manner of one fact or event? 
as compared with that of another ; as, Henry speaks more 
fluently than James. Seth visits us often-er than George. 

What does the Superlative form represent? 

It represents one fact or occurrence as exceeding all 
others in the time or manner referred to ; as, John speaks 
most fluently. Edward visits us often-cstf. 

What does the Diminutive form of a combination of 
modifiers represent? 

It represents the time or manner of an event or fact as 
existing in a less degree than the simple form expresses ; 
as James walked somewhat carelessly around the cage of 
the leopard. 

How are Modifiers declined to denote an advance from 
what is represented by the Simple form? 

They are declined by adding er to the Sinple form to 
render it the Comparative ; and est to render it the Super- 



152 MODIFIERS PRIMARY AND SECONDARY. 

lative form : by associating with them more, to make the 
Comparative form; and most, to make the Superlative 
form : or by a change of words ; as in the following de- 
clension. 



Simple form. 


Cornp. form. 


Sup. form. 


Soon 


sooner 




soonest 


Often 


oftener 




oftenest 


Fast 


faster 




fastest 


Far 


farther 




farthest 


Well 


better 




best 


111 


worse 




worst* 


Swiftly 


more swi 


ftly 


most swiftly 



How are Modifiers declined to mark a comparative 
diminution from what is represented by the Simple form? 

They are declined by associating with them less, to 
make the Comparative form ; and least, to make the Su- 
peilative form ; as, 

Simple form. Comp. form. Svp. form. 

Freely less freely least freely 

Industriously less industriously least industriously 

Double Comparatives and Superlatives [such as more 
oftener most oftenest] are never 10 be usetl. 

Of how many kinds are Modifiers ? 

They are of two kinds ; Primary and Secondary. 

What is a Primary modifier? 

It is one that modifies, of itself, the meaning or sound of 
the sentence or clause in which it occurs : as, John behaves 
well. He writes elegantly. There is more happiness than 
misery in life. 

What is a Secondary modifier ? 

It is one which is prefixed to a primary modifier, to ex- 
ert, through that* its modifying influence on the sentence 
in which it occurs ; as, John behaves very well. He writes 
remarkably elegant. 

May names ever be used as primary or secondary 
modifiers? 

Yes, when they are used, without preceding relatives, or 
dependence on asserters, to show the time, place, manner, 
proportion, tendency or direction, or extent of a fact or 

* /// and well have the same form as modifiers, that they have as adnames. 



MODIFIERS CLASSED. 153 

event ; as, John studied many hours alone. He went home, 
traveling east when I met him. Seth ran three times faster 
than Richard. 

[They are sometimes declined, (like secondary adnames,) 
in combination with their primaries, by associating with 
them mere, to make the Comparative form, and most, 
to make the Superlative form. A modifier or secondary 
adname derived from a primary adname, is made by adding 
ly to that primary.] 

Is the form of a primary modifier ever changed on ac- 
count of a preceding secondary? 

Yes. A primary modifier ending in ly, loses its last 
syllable by having a secondary of the same termination 
before it ; as, John behaves civilly to all men. John be- 
haves truly civil to all men. 

Besides these distinctions, modifiers are divided into 
eleven classes : First, Modifiers 

Of Manner ; as wisely, wickedly, unceremoniously, 
cheerfully, fast, swiftly, slowly, badly, kindly, sweetly, 
sincerely, together, alike. 

Second ; Of Time : 

Time Past ; as, already, lately, heretofore, hitherto, 
long ago, long since. 

Time Present; now. 

Time Future ; as, hereafter, henceforth, by-and-by. 

Time Indefinite ; as, oft, often, oft-times, monthly, 
yearly, then, ever, never, again, immediately, presently, 
instantly, yet. 

Third ; Of Place ; as, here, there, anywhere, no-where, 
somewhere. 

Fourth ; Of Tendency, (or Direction ;) as, hither, 
thither, up, upward, down, downward, back, backward, 
forth, forward, hence, thence, off, away. 

Fifth; Of Number; as, once, twice, thrice, or three 
times, four times, ten times. 

Sixth; Of Order; as, first, secondly, thirdly. 

Seventh ; Those referring to Means, or Cause ; as f here- 
by, thereby, wherefore, therefore, consequently. 

Eighth; Of Degree; as, much, little, sufficiently, 
greatly, enough, almost, less, more. 

Ninth; Of Doubt (or Contingency;) as, haply, per- 
haps, peradventure, possibly, perchance. 

Tenth ; Of Affirmation ; (by way of emphasis,) as ? 



154 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

truly, indeed, undoubtedly, doubtless, doubtlessly, cer- 
tainly, really, surely. 

Eleventh ; Of Negation ; as, not, by no means, not at 
all, in no wise. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

[A few words only in these exercises will be parsed for 
the pupil ; the remainder he must parse for himself.] 

Lesson I. 

William studies very attentively at school, in the winter; 
but in the sumrrer, he often plays the truant. 

very is a modifier; secondary ; qualifying the sense expressed by the 
term attentively, and through that, the sense expressed by the whole 
of the member of the sentence preceding but. 

attentively is a modifier ; primary ; in the simple form : (Simple at- 
tentively ; Comparative, more attentively ; Superlative, most attentively ;) 
it qualifies, (with its own influence and that gained by its connexion 
with very ) the whole of the part of the sentence which precedes but, 
showing how William studies at school, in winter ; referring to the actor 
the action, the place and season of the year; to all, and to each of these 
ideas. 

often is a modifier : primary : in the simple form ; (Simple, often ; 
Gamp, often er ; Super, often- est ;) it qualifies or modifies the sense ex- 
pressed by the whole of the part of the sentence following but ; referring 

to, and representing, the frequency of the event described. William's 

playing the truant in summer. 

Lesson II. 

Henry learns three times faster than John. Richard 
walked five miles farther than Beth. 

three is an adname, considered with respect to the word times; spe- 
cifying ; numeral ; belonging to, and depending on times as a name. 

times is a name, considered only by itself; being a term given for re- 
presenting as objects the different degrees of proficiency ; the proficiency 
of Henry being taken as the standard ; it is general ; neuter ; of the 
third person ; in plural form : its loses, by its connexion with faster, its re- 
lations of case ; and in combination with the adname three, constitutes a 
secondary modifier, qualifying the sense expressed by the term, faster 
(showing how much faster one learns than the other) and through the 
term faster, modifying the sense of the whole sentence. 

faster is a modifier; primary; in the comparative f >rm ; (Simple, 
fast; Comparative, faster ; Superlative, fastest;) it modifies the sense 
of the whole sentence referring to the whole fact of one's proficiency in 
Seaming, compared with that of the other. [The word than acts the part 
of a modifying connective.] In the next sentence, 



CORRECTION AND PARSING. 155 

four is an adname ; specifying ; numeral, and belongs to the term miles 
in its name capacity ; and miles is a name ; general ; representing, as ob- 
jects, seven spaces of three hundred and twenty rods each ; neuter; of the 
third person ; in the plural form : it loses, by its connexion with farther, 
its relations of case ; and with the term four constitutes a secondary modi- 
fier, qualifyino the sense expressed by the primary Jarlher, and through 
that as the medium, modifying the sense expressed by the whole sentence 
including every idea expressed in and by it. Farther is parsed like faster. 

Lkssson III. 
Henry writes elegantly, when striving, before his tutor, 
to excel "his cousins. John: Helen sings melodiously at 
church. Seth behaved very awkwardly at the social concert. 
Maria's friend accosted me very civilly, and kindly invited 
me to his hoirse. Time flies rapidly, and should therefore 
be diligently improved. 

Lesson IV. 
James went home last night, at twelve o'clock. His 
father rose and let him in. He sat some time, and finally 
explained the cause of his having been out so late. His 
father reprimanded him mildly ; and at length allowed 
him to retire to rest. 

Note. Night, in, time, finally, out, late, mildly and at length 
are all primary modifiers. 

Lesson V. 
[For correction and Parsing.] 
Seth writes elegant. Julia sings melodious. William 
walks graceful. John behaves civil. Robert ran very 
rapid. Zadok treated me quite kind. Sarah plays ad- 
mirable on the guitar. Grammar should be studied very 
attentive. Time should be careful improved. 

Lesson VI. 

William behaves very good. Samuel went direct to 
Utica ; passed very quick thiough the city, and went to 
Rome ; where he unexpected met James and left that 
village very sudden for Buffalo. Julia tries, very frequent 
to sing " Hail Columbia." Maria's cousin was walking 
very careless along Broadway ; when he was jostled by a 
horse that ran very furious against him and injured him 
very severe. 



156 CORRECTION AND PARSING. 

Lesson VII. 
The young nobleman spoke very ostentatious concerning 
his ancestors' greatness. He imagined himself boasting 
quite secure, of his titles and his estate. He deported 
himself very haughty, when among his equals in empty 
ancestral fame ; and quite disdainful towards those whom 
he imagined his inferiors, in wealth, in stars, and ribbons ! 
which showed more clear what he was, by forming a con- 
trast with what he should have been. 

Lesson VIII. 

Abigail passed quite hasty through the saloon to her 
place. Graceful motion seems almost a part of Helen's 
nature. She could hardly move awkward though she 
should attempt it. Juliet demeans herself very becoming 
among her associates. Mary seemed to have dressed her- 
self most splendid to attract admirers at church ! where, 
instead of seeking, penitent, the favor of her God, she 
courted only the smiles of men. 

Lesson IX. 
Deal just ; love mercy ; and wdAkhumble before thy God. 
If you would be healthy, live temperate. If you would 
ensure a competence and its comforts, labor industrious 
and live frugal. If you would be honored, walk upright 
among men. If you would be esteemed, deal kind with all. 
If you would be happy live, religious and devout : yet be 
not bigoted or censorious. 

Lesson X. 

He who pretends to great civility and respectfulness of 
deportment towards man, and yet can impious profane 
the name of his Maker, acts inconsistent with himself, 
whether considered rationally or morally. Those, who, on 
every occasion trifle so unceremonious with the name of 
the Deity, are the first to think themselves insulted by 
another person's trifling with their names. 

Lesson XI. 
Those who argue so very inconsiderate that "though 
the Creator may exercise a general providence towards the 



ItfcLATlVES. 157 

World, he can not, from the nature of things, exercise a 
particular providence" should prudently remember that 
the former necessarily supposes and includes the latter : 
from the fact, that no body can be preserved and sustained 
as a whole, without the preservation and support of the 
smallest particles composing the grand aggregate. He who 
would preserve an entire book, must preserve, not the cover 
0nly, but that and the least part of each and every page. 

Lesson XII. 

*' Though sore are thy trials ; thy God is thy stays 
Though deep thy denials ; yield not in dismay : 
But, wrapt with bright visions, look on to the day 
When the founts of Elysium thy thirst, shall allay. 
There shalt thou for ever enjoy thy repose : 
Where Life's gentle river eternally flows; 
Yea! there thou shalt rest thee, thy tears wip'd away*: 
Joys, fadeless, shall bless thee, in Glory's bright day.* 5 

CHAPTER IX. 

RELATIVES. 

What is a Relative ? 

It is a part of speech used to show the relation oT aft 
object to some fact or event, or of one object to another 3 ; 
as, My knife is worth a dollar. Jane went to Utica, in 
Oneida county. 

Of how many kinds are Relatives? 

They are of two kinds, Primary and Secondary ; and 
-some of the former class are called Independent relatives 2 ; 
some of them also partake the natures of relatives and 
modifiers ; and some partake the natures of adnames and 
relatives ; consequently they may be called modifying re- 
latives, or adname relatives, according to their represen- 
tation.* 

* A modifying relative, while it shows relation, refers, at the same 
time, to the manner of action ; as, Henry walks like his brother. An 
adname relative, while it shows relation, refers, at the same time, to the 
quality or condition of an object ; as, William is like his cousin, but un~ 
Uke his brother, who is worth little to community. Relatives, when thus 
used, in the twofold capacity, are capable of being declined like the other 
|>arts of speech whose office they assume. 

14 



158 



RELATIVES. 



What is a Primary relative ? 

It is one which, of itself, shows the relation existing be* 
tween an object and a fact or event, or the relation of 
one object to another ; as, William went to Boston to meet 
Seth ; and had gone through the city before he met him. 

What is a secondary relative ? 

It is one which is prefixed to a primary, and qualifies, or 
renders more emphatic, the sense expressed by it ; as 
William went almost to Boston to see Henry. He met 
him very near the city. 

What is an independent relative 1 

It is one which represents the object denoted by the 
word depending on it, as being independent of the sense 
expressed in the sentence to which the relative is attached, 
and unconnected with the event or fact which the sen* 
tence describes ; as, All were destroyed, except Noah and 
his family. None of John's cousins, save Jane and Rich- 
ard, reside in New York. 

Table of the Principal Primary Relatives. 



About 


At 


# From betweei 


i Since 


Above 


Before 


In 


Throughout 


Across 


Behind 


Into 


Till 


According to 


Below 


Instead of 


To 


Aboard 


Beneath 


In lieu of 


Toward 


Aboard of 


Beside 


In relation to 


Towards 


Ahead of 


Betwixt 


In spite of 


Touching 


After 


Between 


Near 


Through 


Against 


Beyond 


Nigh 


Under 


Along 


Besides 


Notwithstand 


ing Underneath 


Amid 


But for 


Of 


Untof 


Amidst 


By 


Off 


Until 


Among 


Concerning 


Opposite 


Up 


Amongst 


Down 


Out of 


Upon 


Around 


During 


Past 


With 


Aslant 


Devoid of 


Per 


Within 


Athwart 


Ere 


Previous to 


Without 


Astride 


For 


Respecting 


With respect to 


As to 


From 


Round 


With regard to 



* Other relatives may be joined to express a two- fold relation ; as, the 
dog came from under the house. 

t This word should never be used. It weakens the grave style ; and 
is intolerable in any other. 



CRITICAL REMARKS ON RELATIVES. 159 

Independent. 
But Except Excepting Save Saving 

Note. — Including and excluding, when merely meaning the state of 
being included and the state of exclusion, without direct reference to the 
acts or agents producing those states or conditions> may be parsed as 
relatives ; as, Th& school was composed of twenty persons, including 
the teacher. The number of children taught in the common schools of 
the State, is 500,000, excluding those who are less than five years old.* 

Are relatives ever used in an absolute sense, so as not to 
depend on any preceding sentence expressing a fact or 
event? 

Yes ; as, " O, for a lodge in some vast wilderness." 
As to the traveler's death ; it was, most likely, caused by 
his being thrown from his carriage. 

CRITICAL REMARKS 

Respecting the use of some of the Relatives. They 
show the same relation with respect to immaterial or ima- 
ginary objects when used figuratively, that they do to 
other objects when used literally. - 

About — in the circumjacent or immediate neighborhood 
of; as, Henry went about the country lecturing. He can, 
to-day, be found about home. 

Above — exceeding in altitude ; as, The mountain ex- 
tends twenty thousand feet above the level of the sea. 
William is far above John in talent, enterprise, and moral 
worth. 

[Abuse of the word. — John is above three years younger 
than Richard. Corrected ; more than three years, &c] 

Across — motion, tendency or position, considered 
transversely with respect to the object denoted by the 
word depending on the relative ; as, Henry sailed across 
the river. John walked across the room. The serpent 
was lying across the path. 

[Abuse of the word. — William came across his friend 
yesterday — thatis, he walked upon, walked on, and walk- 
ed off his friend ; moving from one side to the other of 
him. Must it not have hurt his friend ? " I came across 
an Indian about twenty rods ahead of me, "(singular that I 
should come across the Indian twenty rods distant !) "who 

* Including, thus used, acts like with, and excluding, like besides. 



160 CRITICAL REMARKS ON RELATIVES. 

ran toward me, discharged his musket, threw his tome- 
hawk, and fled." Corrected ; I met a friend. I saw an 
Indian. J 

According to — in agreement with ; not contrary, to or 
different from ; as, I acted according 'to my instructions* 
The work was done according to the stipulations concern- 
ing it. [Joseph W. Wright-would have it stand " accord- 
ingly to /" which is not according to grammatical consis- 
tency, or the principles of good language.]. 

Note. — The grammarians ! of the old school have wrangled long con- 
cerning " agreeably to" and " agreeable to" without being able to deter- 
mine which should be used in a sentence like this — He did the work 
agreeably to, or agreeable to his instructions. This dispute must be 
settled in the same manner with that of the frog and the mouse that 
were both borne off by the Kite. Neither the one nor the other of 
these authors is right. Neither agreeably to, nor agreeable to, should be 
used in a sentence like the one given in exemplification ; but the place 
should be occupied by according to; as, He did the work according to his 
instructions.* - 

After — succession or pursuit ; in time, referring to a 
later period ; as James went first, or foremost, and John 
went after him. Julius returned after nine o'clock. 

[Abuse of the word. — "John ; harness up! the horses, and 
go to the mine after a load of coal. 5 ' " William ; run to the 
store after a few pounds of tea." They are here used as 
though the coal and tea had gone first from the place where 
John and William stood, and they must run or go after 
those things. They are not ordered to get the coal and 
tea, but are only to follow them wherever they, the tea and 
coal, go. Corrected. — John ; harness the horses and go 
to the mine for some coal. William ; run to the store for 
a few pounds of tea.] 

At, to.— At may be used in reference to a cessation of 
motion (in tendency) by, or without, a particular boundary, 
gaol or place ; or an interference with an object ; as 
James stopped at the door. The bird flew at Jack, who 
was robbing her nest. To may be used in general refer- 
ence to an object ;as, John is, to me, a warm-hearted friend : 
or to denote the completion of the act of tending toward 

* Agreeably is a modifier not a relative ; as John behaves agreeably 
towards all. Agreeable is an adname ; as, John is very agreeable in his 
4eportment among his friends. 



CRITICAL REMARKS ON RELATIVES. 161 

a gaol or object: as, James came to the door and let me 
in. It is never to be used to denote a rest, or remaining 
at a place. I may say, I went to the house and stopped 
at the door; but I may not say, I went at the house and 
stopped to the door. I may say, I will stay at home ; but 
not, 1 will stay to home. To say that, the bird flew to Jack, 
would not intimate that Jack had any cause of alarm ; 
while to say that the bird flew at him, would indicate hos- 
tility of intent and action on the part of the bird, toward 
Jack. 

A most outlandish use of to has been made by men pro- 
fessing to be learned in the language, in putting it into the 
place of on, as I will speak to that resolution — [Corrected ; 
I will speak on that subject or resolution.] 

When we would use the asserter arrive, and represent 
the motion as having ceased without the boundary or 
limit; we should use at; as, James arrived at the gate. 
When we use any other asserter to describe the motion, 
we should use to, as William went, or came, to the gate. 

When we would represent the moving body as not 
having ceased its onward motion without the limit or boun- 
dary, we should use into with an objective after it, except 
when we use the arrive that requires in ; as, John came 
into the city. Henry arrived in Philadelphia at eight 
o'clock. 

In, into.* Into is to be used in describing motion and 
tendency to a place within the limits of a thing; while in 
is to be used in describing a rest or remaining there ; as, 
Henry came into the city and took lodgings in the city* 
Edward threw a stone into the house and hit John in the 
house. To say that he threw the stone in the house* 
would indicate that while the stone was in the building he 
threw it somewhere, not that he threw in tu the building: 
while, to say that he threw it into the house, indicates, 

* Within indicates, particularly, that the limits of what is referred to 
are known and contemplated ; and that the object is, or the fact occurs, 
between those limits ; as, I live within the boundaries of the city. The 
vessel came within hearing distance. [This is improperly called " speak- 
ing distance." A man may speak any where : so that any distance is 
" speaking distance," but he cannot hear another unless he is within the 
space in which the action of the speaking organs causes such a vibration 
of the atmosphere as sensibly to affect the hearing organs — the auditory 
nerves. 

14* 



162 CRITICAL REMARKS ON RELATIVES, 

clearly, that while the stone was without the house, he 
took it, and caused it to move till it arrived within the en- 
closure of the edifice. What is in a place, can not be 
thrown into it. What is without a place cannot be thrown 
in it. 

Out of, without. Out of is used in representing a 
body as moving or being drawn outward, from within a 
place, to a space beyond the limits of it — on the outside 
of.it; while without is to be used in representing a rest or 
remaining on the outside of the limits of the place. It is 
also used to denote destitution, or absence from a thing. 
Examples. James threw the hat out of the house, and left 
it lying on the ground without the walls. Seth is without 
money. He went to school without his hat. Men who 
are in a house may go out of it, and when they have done 
that, they can remain without the house, but it would be 
incorrect to say he went without the house and staid out 
of the house.* 

On and upon. Upon is to be used in representing a 
body as tending to a place on something ; and on, in 
representing the person or thing as remaining there ; as, 
John went upon the roof, and sat down, to rest himself on 
the roof. Seth climbed upon the wall and sat reading on 
the wall. It would not be correct to say he climbed on 
the wall and sat upon the wall. [Upon is also used, in the 
place of* against ; as William rushed upon the foeman's 
spear.]; On may also be used to denote relation to a cer- 
tain state or business, as in the following examples. Lwas 
on my journey to Michigan, when Henry, who had been 
at the West on a visit returned. The soldier had been on 
duty four hours when, he was relieved* I am writing on 
the subject of the proper use of the relatives. 

Note.— Owing to what may seem a defect in the language, upon 
(up-on) must be used even when reference is had to a downward motion ; 
for on, cannot be used to indicate motion either up or down ; as, The bird 
descended upon the roof. This would indicate, that it descended to the 
roof, and was on the roof: Yet, to say, that the bird descended on the 
roof; would be the same a& to say, that while she was on the roof, she 
went down it : or, that being already on the roof^she descended it. The 

* Custom is, and long has been, setting strongly, in favour of using out of 
and without, synonymously. This is wrong, and should be made right : or 
the distinctive properties of the two words will be lost. Withoutjs sometimes 
very improperly used in the place of: unless ; as, John will be ruined without, 
James shall assist him. 



CRITICAL REMARKS ON RELATIVES. 163 

word to, is not sufficient to supply the place of upon ; for, to say, the bird 
descended to the roof, does not indicate that it went upon, but only that 
it descended till it came to a place, where, if it had advanced any farther, 
it would have been on the roof. To, may be used, even in describing & 
descent, if it is used only to indicate, that the thing descended, till it ar 
rived at the place, without going- upon, or stopping, or resting on it. 

With, by. With, is made to precede the name or sub- 
stitute denoting the instrument or means with which some- 
thing is done, or to be done ; and by, is made to precede 
the term denoting the agent, or operative cause ; as, Ed- 
ward was whipped with a scourge, by the man whose fruit 
he had been detected in stealing. When, however, the in«* 
strument is, by a figure of speech, used for, or made to re- 
present, the agent, by, must be used. Former rhetoricians 
have given, but never half illustrated, an example, design- 
ed to sustain this point. Some of the old Scottish barons 
are represented as laying their hands upon their swords, 
and exclaiming to their king, w r ho wished to extend his 
prerogative: "By these our rights were obtained, and 
with these we will defend them." By these our rights 
were obtained, represents the swords as the agents or 
operative causes; while, with these we will defend them, 
represents the barons themselves as the agents, and the 
swords only as the instruments or means. 

For — -as on> account of , may be used to show the relation; 
of cause and effect; as, John wept bitterly for the wrong 
which he did to William. William forgave him for his 
penitence. Seth shouted for joy, when he saw the suc- 
cess of those who went to save the drowning crew. It 
may be used to denote purpose or design ; as, John went 
to New York for his stock of goods : (not after his goods.) 
It may represent the sense of the words, in the place of ; 
as, Walter trained on review-day for Henry. Zadok 
went to Albany for Richard. It may denote exchange ; 
as, I gave William five hundred dollars for his horses. [It 
should never be used in the place of after, or before an 
asserter in the unlimited mode dependent ; as James went 
to the store after a book. John went to Utica/or to see 
William. The words to see denote John's purpose or de- 
sign in going, without the aid of for. 

Aslant — may be used in representing motion, ten?- 
dency, or position, obliquely considered ; as, "Lo !. n&\% 



164 PARSING. 

apparent all [wholly apparent] aslant the dew-bright earth 
and colored air, he looks in boundless majesty abroad." — - 
Thomson on "Sunrise." [That is, he looks aslant the 
earth and air.] 

Athwart — may represent motion [but not position) 
considered transversely with respect to an object; as, The 
first shot passed athwart the bow of the enemy's flag-ship. 

Beside, Besides. — Beside, meaning, by-the-side-of, 
is a relative, referring to the place of one thing, con- 
sidered with respect to another ; as, The drunkard lay be- 
side the fence. Besides, denotes addition to another ob- 
ject or to other objects mentioned ; as, James had twenty- 
apples, besides those which John had given him. 

Besides, other than. — Other than, should never be 
used as a relative, or in the place of besides, except or but ; 
as, No man was seen there, other than the coachman. No 
reasons were offered, other than those which William had 
suggested. [Other than, in these and all similar places, 
should yield place to besides, but, except, or excepting-. 

Per — is used in the sense of by, either to mark the re- 
lation of an event to the agent or means ; as, I shall send 
this letter per mail: or to represent the relation of many 
objects severally considered, to some fact described by 
foregoing words ; as, John sold his wheat for two dollars 
per bushel. The only advantage of using per in the place 
of by, is that the former in this last use of the term, ex- 
cludes the adname the, while the latter retains it ; as, John 
sold his wheat at two dollars by the bushel ; or two dollars 
per bushel. 

Lesson I. 

[For Parsing.} 

James walked with Henry across the street, went into a 
store and placed himself beside Horatio, near the book- 
case. 

James is a name ; particular ; masculine ; of the third person ; in the 
singular form ; in the subjective case ; having the asserter walked de- 
pending on it for sense, and making, with that, a simple sentence. [See 
James in the staple of plate II.] 

walked is an asserter ; intransitive ; in the declarative mode ; in the 
indefinite-past tense ; in the completive form ; regular ; and depends 
for sense on the name James. [See lives in the large link of plate II. J 

With Henry, is an appendant phrase. [See plate II.] 



parsing, 165 

with is a relative ; showing the relation (with respect to place) ex- 
isting between the two persons as they walked ; and has the name Henry 
depending on it for sense. [See near in the first small link of plate II.] 

Henry is parsed like James in every respect but case. It is in the ob- 
jective case, and depends for sense on the relative with. [See house in 
the first ring of plate II. 

Across the street is an appendant phrase. [See plate II.] 

across is a relative : showing the relation that existed between the 
event of the persons' walking, and the road as the object across which 
they walked. [It does not, as the grammarians I of the old school pre- 
tend, show the relation of the names ; or the objects, (the persons and 
the road ) The persons could not have been across the road, unless the 
road was so narrow, or their individual, or aggregate length so great 
that when they were stretched on the ground, (transversely with respect 
to the road,) they extended from one side to the other of it.] They 
walked, describes an event. The road is represented as having been in 
some way related to that event ; and the word across shows what that 
relation was ; whether they walked beside the road, near*, under, over f or 
across it. 

the is an adname ; specifying ; definite ; and belongs to, and depends 
on the sameroad, denoting the object to which the adname refers. 

koau is a. name ^ general , neuter , of the third person ; .hi the sin- 
gular form ; in the objective case ; denoting the object to which the 
event of James and Henry's walking, is represented as having been re- 
lated. It depends, for sense, on the relative across. [See the name 
house, in the first ring of Plate II.] 

and is a connective; joining together the two asserters ivalked and 
went, with the words severally dependent on them ; and thereby repre- 
senting the two persons, James and Henry, as being the actors in both 
the events described. 

went is an asserter ; intransitive; in the declarative mode; in the 
indefinite past tense ; in the completive form ; and, being joined by 
and, to the asserter walked, it depends on the words on which that de- 
pends, to denote the actors. 

Into a store is an appendant phrase. [See plate II.] 

into is a relative ; showing the relation that existed between the 
event of the persons' going, andthe store, as the object, into which they 
went. [It cannot show merely the relation of the persons, as objects, to 
the store, as another object ; (see the grammars of M. K. B. S. and W.) 
for the persons were not " into" or iw the store till they had gone into it. 
If they had been in the store they could not have gone into it, See the 
remarks on in and into page 131.] 

store is a name ; general neuter of the third person ; in the singular 
form ; in the objective case ; depending on the relative into. [See the 
dependence of the names in the rings, in plates I. or II. on the small 
links immediately preceding them ] 

Note.-— himself is a substitute ; simple ; emphatic ; masculine • of 
the third person ; in the singular form, and the objective ease, depending 
for sense on the asserter placed ; while the relative beside, shows, not 
merely the relation of the man James, to the person Horatio ; but the 



166 PARSING. 

relation of the fact of James placing himself, and the man Horatio, as 
the object. Remember that he could not have placed himself beside 
Horatio, if he had been there, or beside him, at the time referred to. 

near shows the relation existing merely between the man Horatio, 
and the bookcase as the object near which he sat, or was standing. 

Lesson II. 
[For Parsing.] 

[A few words only, of this lesson, will be parsed for the 
pupil ; the remainder he must parse for himself.] 

My uncle took with him, to Trenton Falls, all his chil- 
dren except Sarah, who was at school in Auburn. James 
stood very near the elephant ; and John was almost under 
him. 

With, to, except, at, in, very near, and almost under, are 
relatives. Except shows, it is true, how Sarah is to be regarded in rela- 
tion to the fact of her father's family's going to Trenton Falls, but it is 

done by showing hnw she is tn hp. rpgardpd with respect to tho centence 

expressing that fact, showing that Sarah is not included in the remark 
expressing the journey to Trenton Falls ; is to be regarded as independ- 
ent of the remark, and not connected with the event which it represents. 
It is then of course an independent relative. 

very is a secondary relative ; qualifying the sense expressed by the 
primary near, and depending on that word for sense. It adds to the 
sense expressed by the primary near ; very near, denoting closer approx- 
imity to the object than the term near, alone, would denote. 

almost is a secondary relative, qualifying the sense of the primary 
under, on which, it depends. It detracts, or takes from, the sense which 
the word under of itself expresses. When one object is under another, 
a right line from one to the other must be perpendicular : but when one 
object is almost under another, a right line from one to the other must be 
oblique or slanting. 

Lesson III. 

It is better to hear the rebuke of the wise, than to listen 
to the song of the fool. Remember thy Creator in the 
days of thy youth. Soon shall the dust return to dust, and 
the soul, to God who gave it. He that diggeth a pit or 
spreadeth a snare for his neighbor, shall fall into it, him- 
self.— Bible. 

Lesson IV. 

Who have wo and babblings? who have contentions, 
and wounds without cause ? They that tarry long at the 
wine; they that go to seek mixed wine. Look not upon 



PARSING. 16? 

the wine when it is red ; when it giveth its color in the 
cup : for, in the end, it biteth like a serpent, and stingeth 
like an adder. It will lead thee into destruction, and 
cause thee to utter perverse things* Thou wilt be like 
him who lieth down in the midst of the sea. — Bible. 

Lesson V. 

He th?it depends on his own exertions for success, will 
seldom be in want; but he that depends on the patronage 
of friends, is always in distress. Honesty, industry, and 
frugality constitute the best capital with which a young man 
can begin business ; and without these, money is, to him, but 
the heavy load of a car going off a precipice — it hastens 
the hour of his destruction ; and makes more complete 
and fatal, the catastrophe which it induces. 

Lesson VI. 

He that has no respect for himself, will never be re* 
spected by others. He that over estimates himself, en- 
sures the contempt of all around him. Let no man 
despise you for your diffidence or dullness : let no one 
hate you for your pride or ostentation. The stubborn oak 
tempts, from the mountain's top, the tempest's rage and 
lightning's blaze ; is smitten, and thrown prostrate upon 
the ground ; the filthy bramble lies grovelling in the 
muddy, stagnant pool; or is buried by the deluge sweep* 
ing over it : while the amiable fruit-tree, on the mountain's 
side, thrives in security, from the deluge and the tempest's 
rage. 

Lesson VII. 

Good nature (as it is called) and uniform civility of de- 
meanor, are the oil on life's chariot wheels, enabling us to 
glide smoothly and pleasantly through the ceaseless variety 
of character and circumstances which we must pass. 
These qualities cost nothing, and yet are valuable gifts 
inspiring pleasure in ourselves, and imparting it to all with 
whom we associate ; and, not unfrequently they prove a 
passport to higher enjoyment, and to a more extended 
sphere of activity and usefulness. A morose disposition 



l&B PARSING. 

entering a circle of rationally cheerful, and social minds* 
is like a winter blast, sweeping, with its chill breath, and 
icy scourge, over the blooming fields of fragrant and balmy- 
May. 

Lesson VlH. 

The highway of the righteous, is, departing from evih 
He that keepeth in this path, preserveth his soul. Pride 
goeth before destruction ; and a haughty spirit before a 
fall. The wicked man taketh a gift out of his bosom to 
pervert the ways of judgment. The integrity of the up* 
right will guide them to plenty : but the perverseness of 
the wicked will destroy them. The memory of the just 
shall be honored : but the name of the wicked shall rot. 
By the sorrow of the heart, the spirit is broken; but he 
that is of a cheerful heart, hath a continual feast. Be not 
hasty in thy spirit to be angry; for anger resteth in the 
bosom of fools. Wisdom excelleth folly, as much as light 
excelleth darkness. — Bible. 

Lesson IK. 

Son of man : hast thou given strength to the horse ? 
Hast thou clothed his neck with thunder? Doth the hawk 
fly by thy wisdom, and stretch her wings toward the 
South? Hast thou gone into the springs of the sea? 
Have the gates of death been opened to thee ? Hast thou 
seen the doors of the shadow of death ? Who provideth 
food for the raven, when her young ones cry to God? — 
It is not for kings to drink wine ; or for rulers to use 
strong drink ; lest they should drink and forget the law, 
and pervert the judgment of the afflicted. — Bible. 

Lesson X. 

" The chief misfortunes that befal us in life can be 
traced to some errors or follies which we have commit- 
ted." Contentment amidst misfortunes would prevent us 
from doing our duty in trying to extricate ourselves. Sub- 
mission to what is unavoidable should be practised by all : 
but who shall say of this misfortune, or of that calamity* 
"it is more than I can meet with firmness, or bear with 
patience, or more than 1 can surmount ?" 



CORRECTION AND PARSING. 169 

Lesson XI. 

The evils, like the blessings, cf this life, appear vast at a 
great distance from us ; yet, to the weak and timid, those 
blessings diminish, and those evils increase, as they ap- 
proach. Hope and fear hold alternate sway in the human 
mind. When we are in prosperity, we fear coming re- 
verses of fortune, which may plunge us into distress. 
When we are in the depths of adversity, we naturally hope 
for future good. When Hope is lost in certainty of pos- 
session, Fear begins her part. When Fear's worst scenes 
have been entered, Hope shows her golden light 

Lesson XI L 

The ceaseless changes of life, give trouble to the pros- 
perous, but joy to the distressed ; and this keeps, in equi- 
poise, the happiness of man. He who is full and can hope 
for nothing, is wretched from fearing every thing, in a 
coming change. He who can fear nothing worse than he 
feels, hopes all things, and is joyous in his hope. Tiien 
as hope, in adversity, is a more gladsome quality than fear, 
in affluence ; who shall say that the prosperous are always 
die more blessed ? Who shall say that those, in trouble, 
who rejoice in hope of what to-morrow may bestow, are 
not more happy, or, at last, less wretched, than those, 
rolling in luxury, who are, already, beneath the pall of 
sadness, from fear of what tomorrow may bring forth? 

Lesson XIII. 

[For Correction and Parsing.] 

Henry threw the cloak on the floor. John threw his 
hat in a neighbor's window. William wrote upon the 
book cover. I reside out of the city ; but go in the city 
every day. Richard has no business, other than buying 
and selling horses. I have twenty apples, beside those 
which Henry gave me. Seth ; come in the house. I 
want you to stay ta home while I shall be to the fair. 
James had volunteered to speak to the resolution offered 
into the meeting. James said unto me that he would pur- 
chase him a country seat; and go on to [upon] it to spend 
the summer. 

15 



170 CONNECTIVES. 

Lesson XIV. 

For Correction and Parsing.] 

I rested myself upon my bed. I sat upon a bench and 
listened to "William's harangue. He had been standing 
upon the steps ; but stepped in the store, as he saw me 
approaching him. I led John from the hall, in the apart- 
ment allotted him. He went in his room and sat down. 
Maria went to the store after some lace ; and staid to the 
place where she had got it, till I called for her. I sent a 
man from New-York to Albany after a horse that was to 
come from Buffalo to Albany, to meet him there. 

Lesson XV. 

[For Correction and Parsing.] 

John sat upon his horse, and talked a long time. Wil- 
liam went unto the residenee of Henry ; and found him 
sick and upon his bed. He said but little to William, 
upon the subject of his sickness. I went from the river, 
on the hill and from that place to my residence. Seth 
fell in the river and was near being drowned ; but John 
went in the water- and brought him out alive ; laid him on 
to the carpet, and sent after a physician who was to church, 
under the hill. 

CHAPTER X. 

CONNECTIVES. 

What is a Connective ? 

It is a part of speech used to connect words or sentences 
to each other ; as, Henry and John were good boys, but 
James was the best scholar ; or he could not have excelled 
the others. 

Of how many kinds are Connectives ? 

They are of two kinds; Simple and Modifying. 

What is a Simple connective ? 

It is one which connects words or sentences to each 
other, without any other modifying effect on the sense 
than is necessarily attendant on its connective influence ; 



CONNECTIVES. 171 

as, John, as well as James, was at the fair. Henry or 
Richard wrote the letter. 

What does and, (opposed to or) indicate ? 

It indicates that prior and subsequent things are to be 
taken together; (or it means both;) as, Richard and 
Edward steal poultry. 

What does or indicate ? 

Or indicates that they are to be taken or considered, 
separately ; (or it means one or the other ;) as, Richard 
or Edward steals poultry. 

What do but and yet indicate ? 

They indicate a change in the circumstances of the nar- 
ration ; as, James was taken sick, but he soon recovered. 

What does and (opposed to those words) indicate ? 

It indicates a continuance of the circumstances of the 
narration ; as, Henry fell sick, a?id, lingering some time, 
died. 

What is a Modifying connective 1 

It is a word which has the office of a modifier and a con- 
nective at the same time ; as, James did my work as well 
as John did yours. 

List of the Simple Connectives. 

And But That 

As well as Or Yet 

List of the Principal Modifying Connectives. 

As Seeing that Whilst If 

As well as So Rather than Unless 

As high as Till Though Lest 

Because Until Although Provided 

Before When Either — or In case 

After Where Neither — nor AVhereby 

Since While Whether — or Wherein 

Corresponding Connectives'. 

A Modifying connective is sometimes placed in one part 
of a sentence, in such a manner as to require a correspond- 
ing connnective in another part; both of which con- 
nectives are to be considered as one part of speech. 
These aie therefore called Corresponding connectives. 



172 CRITICAL REMARKS ON CONNECTIVES. 

Examples. 

Though, yet or nevertheless. Though he was rich, yet 
for our sakes he became poor, that we, through his po- 
verty, might become rich. 

Though John was wealthy, he was, nevertheless, active 
and benevolent. 

Whether '-or ; as Whether he will go, or not, I can not 
tell. 

Either-or; as, I will either send the book, or bring it 
myself. 

Neither-nor; as, Neither John nor James would aban- 
don his studies. 

As-as; She is as amiable as her sister. 

CRITICAL REMARKS 

Concerning the use of Modifying Connectives, and other 
corresponding words used negatively. 

No, as adname, requires, as the simple connective re- 
fering to it, the word or; as, No gold or silver was found. 
[No has the same influence when joined to the word thing, 
to make the word nothing ; as Nothing bad or unamiable 
was seen in the behavior of William, when at school. 
Nothing which I can fear, or that misfortune can inflict, 
shall cause me to do, in youth, what, in manhood, I can 
have cause to regret. No is never to be used alone as a 
modifier ; but may be when in combination with more. 

Never and Not, as modifiers, when used in a complex 
sentence, require the connective or to join the parts ; as, 
We should never, in youth, do what can, in manhood, give 
us uneasiness of mind ; or forget, in old-age, that we have, 
ourselves, been young. Henry can not excel William in 
geography or grammar. 

Neither, as a modifying connective, requires nor after 
it, in the same sentence; as Neither James nor John can 
ever be seduced from the paths of virtue. William could 
neither find James, nor learn where he had been. 

Either, when not used as an adname or adname sub- 
stitute, requires or after it, in the same sentence ; as, I will 
either go myself, or send John. Hither William or Henry 
must return. 

Though, Although, or What though, w r hen begin- 



CRITICAL REMARKS ON CONNECTIVES. 173 

ning a sentence, requires after it, in the sentence, either 
yet, or nevertheless, unless it is followed by as. Thus, 
Though a man should be ever so learned ; yet, if he is not 
good, he can not be happy. Although James is rich ; he 
is, nevertheless, humble. "What though, not all of mortal 
offspring, can attain the height of envied life; yet Nature's 
care, to all her children is just." 

Though, immediately followed by as, may have that 
word repeated, as the corresponding part of the connect- 
ive, with or without yet or nevertheless. Example ; 
Though, as a warrior, Napoleon stands unrivalled in the 
history of the world ; as a statesman, he was more liable 
to err ; his errors in state policy originating, in some de- 
gree, in his martial abilities, and his success in arms. 

Whether, requires after it, or, when the or connects 
two asserters referring to the same name or substitute ; as, 
I can not tell whether James will remain or go home : yet, 
if the sentence is so abbreviated as not to have but one as- 
serter used to denote the event referred to, not must fol- 
low or ; as, I can not tell whether or not James will go 
home ; or, whether or not William has written the letter. 
Whether should not take the place of which ; as, " Whether 
of the twain did the will of his father." Corrected ; Which 
of the twain, &c. 

Rather, as a modifying connective, denotes preference 
or choice, and requires than after it, in the same sentence ; 
as, I would rather suffer, than inflict, an injury. 

As and so may be used in representing one fact as the 
consequence of another ; thus, " As Columbia expects her 
sons to be enlightened and brave ; so she expects her 
daughters will be enlightened and virtuous." 

As — as. As, placed at the beginning of a compound 
sentence, expressing comparison, requires so after it. Ex- 
ample ; " As is a madman, casting fire-brands, arrows and 
death; so is he that deceiveth his neighbor, and saith that 
he is in sport." When one member of the compound sen- 
tence precedes the word' as, that word (repeated) is to be 
used after the word denoting the idea concerning which 
the comparison is made ; as, John is as happy without 
wealth, as Henry is with it. James runs as fast as Wil- 
liam. As — as,'the two words, when acting as corresponding 
connectives, denote equality. 

15* 



174 CRITICAL REMARKS ON CONNECTIVES, 

So — as. As is used after so, and the first member of a 
complex sentence, in showing the cause of what the 
latter member of the sentence expresses ; as, William 
was so sick as to be unable to leave his room. The eagle 
soared so high as to be invisible to me.* 

So That. So is used after the first member of a com- 
pound sentence ; and followed by that to express cause in 
relation to what is represented by the latter member of the 
compound ; as, William has recovered so far that he is 
able to walk about his room. 

Lest is used after the first member of a compound sen- 
tence, to denote fear or caution in relation to what is ex- 
pressed by the following member of the compound ; as. 
I bring my body under, and keep it in subjection; lesU after 
having preached to others, I should, myself, become a 
cast-away. — St. Paul 

Till and Until are, respectively, to be used, in con- 
necting sentences: to mark the limits of two successive pe- 
riods of time ; one of them beginning at the expiration or 
conclusion of the other. The asserter in each sentence,, 
thus connected, is to be in the completive form ; as, John 
wrote till I called, Henry agreed to study till his teacher 
should desire him to rest. 

While is to be used in connecting two sentences ex- 
pressing facts that occur the same period of time, in the last 
of which sentences is an asserter in the continuative form ; 
as, I wrote while John was reciting his lesson. I assisted 
Henry while he was preparing for college. 

When is to be used to connect two sentences expressing 
facts that occur in immediate succession, or referring to 
the same period of time ; in the last of which sentences 
there must be an asserter in the completive form ; as, I had 
been traveling two days when John met me. I was writ- 
ing when Henry called. 

Before* ere, and after, are to be used in connecting 
sentences expressing facts that occur in succession ; unless 
we would represent them as occurring in immediate suc- 
cession; in which case when is to be used : as, the crew had 
left the ship before it sunk. [This might mean a long time 

* In such sentences the asserter in the unlimited mode> has a triple 
dependence. It here depends on the name eagle, on the asserter soared, 
and the modifying connective so as. 



CRITICAL REMARKS ON CONNECTIVES. It5 

before the sinking of the ship.] The crew had just left 
the ship, when it went down : or, when the crew had left 
the ship, it sunk. [By either of these two examples, the 
sinking of the ship is represented as occurring immediately 
after the crew's having left it.] 

Than and as have a very beneficial influence in com- 
plex sentences, in saving the repetition of asserters and 
other words, and yet expressing the idea more clearly, ele- 
gantly, and forcibly, than it could be expressed by the use 
of the words whose repetition they prevent. 

Thus — John has more fruit thanRenry. This asserts in 
the best manner, that Henry has fruit, and that John has 
more fruit. William has as much land as Henry, lying 
near Lake Michigan, and in Illinois. This asserts, that 
Henry has land lying in Illinois, and near lake Michigan, 
and that the quantity owned by "William is equal to it. 
William has more fruit than can be gathered in a week. 
Here it saves the repetition of the name fruit, and all the 
other words, which must have been used had than not been 
used. Henry has more correspondents than he can attend 
to. This prevents the repetition of the objective word 
after the relative to, and expresses the idea better than it 
can be expressed by any other words. 

If, Though. If should not be used, unless to intro- 
duce a condition ; or made to precede the expression of 
some matter or event on which something else is depending 
for its fulfillment; as, If John shall prove industrious and 
frugal, he will be able to support himself. It should never 
be used merely to introduce a supposition. The following 
use of it is therefore wrong. 2/ John should become ever 
so wealthy, he could not thereby be made happy. It 
should be, Though he should become, <&c. 

Though, should be used only where a supposition or 
comparison is to be introduced, without having any matter 
depending, as a consequence on the fulfillment of what is 
expressed by that member of the sentence which imme- 
diately follows though; as, Though James should visit his 
brother, he could not assist him. James acts as though 
he was tired of life. The villain stranger deports himself 
as though he was an honest man. 

Note. Whereever if is to be used, there should be something repre- 
sented as depending, for its occurrence, on the fulfillment of the event 



176 LESSONS IN PARSING. 

described by that member of the compound sentence which immediately 
follows the word if: and such an implied negative sense is connected 
with the if that the event represented as the dependence on the condition, 
is not expected to take place, unless the condition which if serves to in- 
troduce, shall first or also be fulfilled ; as, if Richard should pay his debts, 
he would again be respected. Here, it is seen, that Richard's restoration 
to respectability, depends on his paying his debts. The negative sense, 
connected with the use of the word if is such as to show clearly, that 
unless he should pay his debts, he would not again be respected. " I 
shall die in Cazenovia, if I live to become an old man." — Remarks of a 
citizen. Giving if the negative sense, always connected with it, the 
citizen would represent by his words, that if he should live to become an 
old man, he should die in Cazenovia ; but that if he should die when 
young, he might not die there. He doubtless meant that he should die 
in Cazenovia, though, or although he should live to become an old man ; 
inasmuch as he did not intend to remove from that place. The word even 
should never be used before if; though it may, under any circumstances, 
be used before though, or although, (which are synonymous words ;) as, 
Even though John should come with his carriage for me, I could not ac- 
company him. See in the appendix the remark on the " subjunctive 
mode /" and on the sentence u if I were to write he would not regard it." 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
Lesson I. 
James and John met each other where I had left William. 

james is a name ; particular ; masculine ; of the third person ; in the 
singular form ; in the subjective case, having the asserter met, depend- 
ing on it for sense. 

and is a connective ; simple ; it simply connects the two names, 
making them both bear the same relation to the sentence. 

john is parsed like James ; it is connected with James by and, and has 
the asserter met depending on it for sense. 

met is an asserter ; transitive; in the declarative mode ; indefinite-past 
tense ; in the completive form, irregular ; and depends for sense on the 
names, James and John. 

each other is a combination called reciprocal substitutes, (see the defi- 
nition of reciprocal substitutes, page 64 :) in the objective case, and de- 
pending for sense on the asserter met. 

where is a connective ; joining together in one compound sentence 
what would otherwise stand in two simple sentences : modifying ; while 
it connects the sentences ; it refers to the place of the occurrence of the 
two events, considered with respect to each other. 

1 is a substitute ; simple ; common ; of the first person ; in the sin- 
gular form ; in the subjective case, and has the asserter had left depend- 
ing on it for sense. 

had left is an asserter ; transitive ; in the declarative mode ; in the 
prior-past tense ; in the completive form ; irregular ; it depends for sense 
on the word L 



LESSONS IN PARSING. 177 

William is a name ; particular ; masculine ; of the third person ; in 
the singular form ; in the objective case, depending for sense on the as- 
serter had left. 

Lesson II. 
[Let the pupil parse what is not parsed for him.] 
Julius will start for Philadelphia when Joseph shall 
have returned from the west. 

when is a connective ; joining together the two sentences ; modifying ; 
it shows the time of the occurrence x>f the two events described, consider- 
ed with respect to each other, 

Lesson III. 

James died on the day that Henry returned from the 
East Indies. 

that is a connective ; like when in Lesson II ; it connects sentences : 
modifying ; like a modifier, and like when in Lesson II, it shows the 
time of the occurrence of the two events considered with respect to each 
other ; and like rvhtre in Lesson I, and when, in Lesson II, it is a 

modifying connective. 

N. B. Modifying connectives exert the same influence 
when they stand at the heads of sentences, that they do 
when standing between the sentences which they unite. 

Lesson IV. 

When we reflect that every man is surrounded with 
enough to render him happy, and see how many are not 
even comfortable in their minds; we are led to think that 
the chief sources of unhappiness, are in ourselves, 

- Lesson V. 

While we are young we are looking forward to the ma- 
ture joys and blushing honors of manhood : but we are apt 
to forget that they will not be ours, unless we shall, in 
youth, adopt, by virtuous and persevering industry, the 
only means which can, in aftertime produce what we now 
desire. 

Lesson VI. 

When in middle-age, we shall look back, with hopeless 
regret, to the misimprovement of the means which might 



178 CORRECTION AND PARSING. 

have placed us in the rank which we once desired to gain ; 
but can not then hope will ever be ours. 

Lesson VII. 

We plant, with care, the fruit-tree in the richest soil ; 
and cultivate it long, with unceasing care, and diligence ; 
knowing that we can not plant it and eat of its fruit in the 
same day. After years of attention bestowed upon it, we 
have a rich, regular, and increasing return for all our toils ; 
and by due attention to the preservation of the tree we 
shall be secured from want of fruit. 

Lesson VIII. 

We should in youth, plant, in the rich, exhaustless soil 
of intelligence and virtue, the seeds of future usefulness, 
respectability and enjoyment; that, when the seed time of 
life, shall have passed, we can, still vigorous and useful, 
enjoy the fruit secured to us by youthful integrity, study, 
and attention to business ; and solace ourselves in old-age, 
with the pleasing consciousness of having tried to act our 
parts, and the good will and respect of all within the reach 
of our influence — a consolation which no great or good 
man can despise. 

Lesson IX. 

If there were no drunkards, three quarters of the 
wretchedness of life, would yield to comfort and plenty. 
If there was no drinking intoxicating draughts, there could 
be no drunkards. If no intoxicating drinks were sold, none 
could be used. If none were made, none could be sold. 
If the means were not furnished, none could be made, and 
the whole traffic and its consequences would cease. 

Lesson X. 

[For correction and Parsing.] 

No man nor woman should hope to live and be inde- 
pendent of the rest of the world : for Heaven has wisely 
formed us dependent on each other ; that every one may 
feel, on his own account, an interest in his neighbors 1 wel- 
are. 



INTERROGATIVES. 179 

In business affairs, neither one partner or the other 
thinks his interest se$8re or feels himself at rest when the 
other's private affairs are in embarrassment : and he does 
not suspend his anxiety for himself, nor allow himself to 
rest, till he has either dissolved the partnership, or made 
his partner's interest secure. 

Lesson XL 

The comforts and happiness of mankind are common 
stock in trade, and all men are partners. Then, as it is 
impossible for us to disengage ourselves from the partner- 
ship, without destroying our own lives ; we should never 
think our own interest secured, nor our work half done, 
while all mankind shall have become intelligent and vir- 
tuous, prosperous and happy. Then neither interest or 
sense of duty, can safely soothe our minds when we'are in- 
active, or seeking to appropriate to ourselves, what is the 
private estate of another, with which he adds to the success 
of enterprise for public felicity. 

Lesson XII. 

//James is rich, he is, nevertheless, industrious. I am 
comfortable, even if I am not wealthy. I stood at Wil- 
liam's house while Seth returned. I will be visiting at Rich- 
ard's when he shall be absent and will go home while he shall 
have returned. Amos writes as if he did not intend that 
any one but himself should read his essay. Helen is not 
proud 2/she is beautiful. Henry is not so studious as Seth. 
The duck can not fly so high as the eagle soars. Arnold 
was not so patriotic as he had appeared to be. 



CHAPTER XL 

INTERROGATIVES. 

What is an Interrogative ? 

It is a word which is used to interrogate, and represents 
of itself, what would otherwise be expressed by several 
words of different classes. 

Of how many kinds are interrogatives ? 

They are of two kinds ; Simple and Modifying. 



180 LE3SONS IN PARSING. 

What is a Simple Interrogative ? 

It is one which succeeds a sentence expressing some 
proposition, and stands alone, referring to the sense ex- 
pressed by the whole of the foregoing sentence ; as, James 
will visit New-York and the states east of the Hudson. 
"When?" We should detest vice, yet pity and seek to 
relieve its victims? " Why?" 

What is a Modifying Interrogative ? 

It is a word placed at the head of the sentence to inter- 
rogate, as though nothing had preceded it, and referring, 
like a modifier, to time, place, manner or cause ; as, Where 
is John? When will James visit New- York? Why should 
we detest vice ? How can Henry do the work? 

When should an interrogative be used without other 
words following it and referring to the same fact? 

Whenever, without injuring the fullness, perspicuity, or 
force of an expression, it can represent the sense of 
several words whose united sense would be its equiva- 
lent; as in the foregoing examples. [All must see that_ 
it is in every way better to use the term when, alone, 
as it is there used, than it would be to say, James w r ill 
visit New-York and the states east of the Hudson. At 
what time will James visit New-York and the states east 
of the Hudson ? The word when expresses, by one word, 
all that could be expressed by the whole fourteen words 
of the last of these two sentences.] 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Lesson I. 

James will go to Europe to visit his friends in London. 
" When V I would like to spend some years in improving 
myself, by travelling. "Why V 

When, following the first sentence, is an interrogative ; it is used to 
interrogate ; simple ; it follows a sentence and interrogates, of itself 
concerning the time of the occurrence described by that sentence ; and 
although it refers to the sense expressed by the whole sentence, yet, it 
6tands distinct from it. 

why, following the next sentence, is an interrogaiive ; it is a word 
which interrogates : simple ; it stands alone, and refers to what is ex- 
pressed by the whole of the foregoing sentence, demanding the cause of 
the wish to spend some years in traveling for self-improvement. Although 
it refers to the sense expressed by the whole sentence it is nevertheless, 
^s, used in its place, distinct from the sentence ; not in it, or a part of it. 



CORRECTION AND PARSING. 181 

Lesson II. 

When will Henry visit New- York, and the states east 
of the Hudson? Why should we detest vice, yet pity and 
seek to relieve its deluded victims ? 

When, in the first sentence, is a modifying interrogative ; it is used 
to express, with the sentence in which it stands, both the fact represented 
by the sentence, and an interrogation concerning that fact ; and so modi* 
Jies the interrogation as to make it bear particularly on the time of the 
event described. Thus, if I say, Will Henry visit New- York and the 
states east of the Hudson 1 I interrogate as though I was ignorant in 
relation to the matter, and would like to know whether or not he will do 
it : but, by saying, When will he visit New- York and the states east of 
the Hudson 1 I admit or concede that he will go ; and that I am aware 
of it. My interrogation is then, only with respect to the time of his 
doing this ; and is not, of course, a general inquiry as before. 

Why is parsed on the same principle ; as, by saying, should we detest 
vice, yet pity and seek to relieve its deluded victims 7 I should ask as 
though I was uncertain in relation to the obligation referred to, and 
wished to be informed : yet, by using why at the head of the sentence 
I admit the obligation and only demand on what principle it is based. 

Lesson III. 
[For Correction and Parsing.] 

William will go to Mobile, in Alabama, to visit his for- 
mer associate in business. " When, sir, will he go to that 
place, for that purpose V Seth : I rode with yon in the 
stage, last winter, twenty or thirty miles. Where, sir, did 
you ride with me twenty or thirty miles in the stage last 
winter ? 

Lesson IV* 

Robert subdued the malicious temper of his horse, and 
rendered him in all respects perfectly submissive, in only 
ihree days' time. " How did he do that in so short a 
time:" or, " How did he subdue the malicious temper of 
his horse, and render him perfectly submissive, in only 
three days 1 time ?" Walter was once so sick that he 
could not leave his bed. " When was that?" or, " When 
was Walter so sick that he could not leave his bed-." 



16 



182 REPLIED. 

CHAPTER XII. 

REPLIERS. 

What is a Replier ? 

It is a part of speech which constitutes a reply to a fore-? 
going question or remark; and which represents, of itself, 
what would otherwise require a whole sentence ; as, James, 
will you sell me your carriage for one hundred dollars? 
" Yes. ' 

Of how many kinds are repliers ? 

They are of two kinds; Affirmative and Negative. 

What is an Affirmative replier? 

It is one which is used in reply to a question or remark, 
to give an affirmative answer ; as, John, will you help 
me? " Yes." Shall you see James to-morrow? " Cer- 
tainly," 

What is a Negative replier? 

It is one which is used in reply to a question or re- 
mark, to give a negative answer ; as, John: will you injure 
William? "No!" Will Henry stoop to deception? 
"Never!" 

When should a replier be used alone, after a sentence 
expressing the interrogation, fact or event? 

Whenever it can, alone, represent a full reply to the 
foregoing remark; as, William: can Henry write plain 
and fast ? " No, sir," Seth : has Maria gone to school ? 
"Yes." " Yes, sir," or "Yes, Madam." Is George a 
legal voter ? " Certainly not," [This combination is used 
as a replier to express the negative answer more emphati- 
cally than no could do it.] 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Lesson I. 

Can mortal man withhold his thoughts from the all* 
pervading mind of his Maker? "No." Should writers 
and speakers, a^ all times endeavor to improve the heart, 
while they are seeking to inform the understanding? 
" Certainly." Did you say that the moral code of God's 
government, is a perfect representation of reason and phi- 



EXCLAMATIONS. 183 

losophy, as deduced from the constitution and condition 
of man 1 " Yes, sir." 

no is a replier ; it is used to constitute a reply to the foregoing inter- 
rogation : negative ; it gives a negative answer to the foregoing expres- 
sion. It stands distinct from the sentence preceding it, yet refers to the 
sense expressed by every part — the whole. 

certainly is a replier ; affirmative and emphatic ; emphatic because 
expressing with emphasis the idea of affirmation. It stands distinct 
from the sentence to which it refers. 

yes is a replier ; affirmative ; and stands distinct from the sentence to 
whose sense it constitutes the reply. 

sir is a name ; general ; masculine ; of the second person ; in the 
singular form ; and independent case ; standing distinct from, and inde- 
pendent of, the preceding sentence. 

Lesson II. 

[For Correction and Parsing.] 

Will John expect to drink of the refreshing streams of 
happiness while he is sailing on the stagnant waters of dis- 
sipation 1 " No : he will not,''' Can man, who hardly knows 
enough to provide for his own wants, instruct his Maker in 
the government of the world. " No : lie cannot do it." 
Is the preservation of one's life, and health, generally the 
first duty w T hich he owes to mankind 1 " Yes ; it is so ;" for 
without these he can do nothing to advance the interest 
and happiness of the world. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

EXCLAMATIONS. 

What is an exclamation ? 

It is a part of speech standing distinct from the phrase 
or sentence to which it refers, and used for expressing emo- 
tion : as, Alas ! Man still triumphs over the wretches whom 
he has made miserable. Oh Glorious hope ! O Blessed 
abode ! 



Examples of Exclamations. 



O! 

Oh! 
Ah! 
Alas! 
Pish] 



Heigh ! 


Fie! 


Ho! 


Heigho ! 


Fudge ! 


Hem! 


Really ! 


Sure ! 


So! 


Strange ! 


Surely ! 


Shah ! 


Indeed ! 


All hail ! 


Halloe ! 



184 DERIVATION OF WORDS. 

[Combinations of words are sometimes used as Exclama- 
tions ; Delightful hope ! Encouraging thought ! Ah m,e f 
These are always capable of being analyzed in the same 
manner as other combinations.] 

Exclamations are to be used according to their re- 
spective representations as described in our dictionaries. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Lesson I. 

Alas I Man still triumphs over the wretches whom he 
has made miserable. O Glorious hope of bliss secure! 
[Triumphs as used in this lesson is, by mistake, printed 
tramples on page 22.] 

alas is an exclamation ; it stands distinct from the following sentence 
discribing the fact which produces the emotion that alas expresses. 

O is an exclamation ; it is a word standing distinct from the phrase 
describing the idea that produces in the mind the emotion expressed 
by a. 

Lesson II. 

" O murdered, butchered brother !" u Oh the depth of 
the wisdom and goodness of God !" 

O murdered, butchered brother ! taken together is an exclamation, 
or exclamatory phrase. [In parsing the word* separately O would be 
parsed as an exclamation ; murdered and butchered, both as assertive 
adnames and brother a name in the independent case.] 

CHAPTER XIV. 

[ DERIVATION OF WORD& 

Names are derived from names, in various ways, and for 
various purposes : 

1. By adding tan to denote professions ; as, from tac- 
tics, comes tactician ; from music, musician ; from physic* 
physician ; from tragedy, tragedian: 

2. By adding y, ry, or ery, to denote a general state or 
condition, business, art, or occupation ; or to mark the 
classes of certain objects; as, from slave, comes slavery j 
from scene, scenery ; from cook, cookery ; from soldier, 
soldiery; from peasant, peasantry; from yeoman, yeo^ 
manry 1 



DERIVATION OF WORDS. 185 

3- By an additional syllable ; to denote dominion or 
jurisdiction, office or period of life; as, from king, is king- 
dom ; from duke, dukedom ; from bishop, bishoprzc£; from 
senate, senator; from child, childhood; from man, man- 
hood: 

4. By adding ist, to denote an adherent to certain prin- 
ciples ; or one skilled in something; as, from method, is 
methods ; from colonization, colonizatiomsJ ; from aboli- 
tion, abolitiom's? ; from mechanic or mechanism, mechan- 
ist ; from organ, orgam's* ; 

5. By adding different syllables, to denote a diminutive 
class of the things represented by the simple word ; as, 
from kid, is kidling; from lamb, lamb&m ; from goose, 
gosling, (originally gooseling ;) from hill, hillock ; 

6. By adding some syllable to denote office, or relation 
to the object represented by the simple word : as, from 
heir, is heirship ; from friend, friendship ; from consul, 
consulship ; from president^ presidency; from regent, re- 
gency ; from partner, partnership. 

Names are derived from Asserters. 

7. By adding r, er, or or, to denote an agent or one en- 
gaged in the business represented by the simple word ; as, 
from write, comes writer ; from read, reader ; from speak, 
speaker; from instruct, instructor; from mediate, mediator; 
from sleep, sleeper; from dream, dreamer. 

8. Names and asserters have sometimes the same form ; 
as, love, hate, salt, heat, spring, view, which are in the 
same form, whether used as names or asserters. 

9. By changing the termination of the adname, or by an 
additional syllable ; as, from fragrant, comes fragrancy ; 
from effulgent, effulgence ; from brilliant, brilliancy ; from 
warm, warmfA ; from good, goodness ; from wise, wisdom ; 
from great, greatness; from dark, darkless; from ferocious, 
ferocity ; from brutal, brutally. 

Asserters are derived from Names ; as, 

1. From system, comes to sys tenure ; from method, to 
methodize : 

2. From adname s ; as, from particular, to particulate; 
from white, to whiten; from dark, to darken ; from glad, 

16* 



286 ACCOMMODATIVES. 

to gladden ; from short, to shorten; from bright, to brighter; 
from deep, to deepen. 

3. From the Modifier, forward, comes the Asserter to 
forward. 

4. Asserters sometimes have their meaning changed by 
prefixes ; as, own, disown ; bid,/brbid ; run, outxxm - y hold, 
uphold ; draw, i^Adraw ; look, overlook. 

Adnames are derived from Names. 

By adding en, to show the quality of a thing, or from 
what it is made ; as, from wood, comes wooden ; from oak, 
oaken ; from silk, silken ; from wool, woollen ; from flax, 
flaxen. 

Names are sometimes used as adnames without any 
change of the words ; as, a silver tankard, an iron bar,, a 
gold coin, a steel chain, an evening visiter. 

Adnames are derived from names and other adnames by 
the addition of the syllable y or ly ; as, from coward, is 
formed cowardZy; from man, manZy; from friend, friendZy; 
from day, daiZy; from night, nightZy; from health, healthy; 
from God, godly; from weak, Weakly ; from sick, sickly; 
from frost, frosty. 

[Adnames are formed in various other ways.] 

Mobifiers are derived from Adnames ; as, 

From grateful, comes gratefulZy ; from personal, per- 
son My ; from pensive, pensiveZy; from harmonious, har- 
moniousZy; from sweet, sweetly; from kind, kindZy; 
from awkward, awkwardZy ; from genteel, genteelZy ; from 
wise, wiseZy; from just, justZy. 

Modifiers are variously formed ; as, back-ward, for- 
ward, up-ward, down-ward, thither-ward, there-by, there- 
in, here-in> there-upon. 

[For a further view of derivation, see the " Tables of 
prefixes and suffixes."] 

ACCOMMODATIVES. 

[So called because they are capable of being used in 
various relations to suit the circumstances of composition, 
and the taste of authors.] 

Ax.L is an indefinite specifying ad name ; as, All men 



ACCOMMODATIVE!?. 187 

should be just and benevolent. It is a secondary qualify- 
ing adname ; as, Richard's guilt was all apparent : [wholly- 
apparent — quite apparent.] It is an adname substitute ; 
when standing for a name. Thus speaking of books, I 
say, John took all that I had left. [See on page 64, the 
last paragraph before " Interrogative Substitutes."] 

But is a connective when merely joining words or sen- 
tences to each other ; as, James is dying, hut happy. 
William wrote to me, but I could not answer him. It is a 
relative when denoting exception or exclusion ; as, All of 
the guests were well but the stranger. It may be joined 
to for ; as, I should have been dead but for John's ad- 
vice. " Heaven hides from us all of the book of fate, but 
the page prescribed [written before us] the present state." 
It is a modifier when used in the sense of only ; as, That 
member of the Legislature was but a cypher, to increase 
the influence of his more wily associates. It may be 
joined to what, to form an exclamation : as, But what ! Is 
thy servant a dog, that he should do this great thing ? 

But, used alone as a modifier, may, like only, denote 
the extent of ability in relation to a matter; as, I could 
but lend John money to pay his bill for a month's 
board; and was obliged to leave the city soon after my 
arrival. This shows, that whatever might have been my 
wish, with respect to John, I was not able to assist him 
more than I did. But, preceded by not, denotes constraint 
or compulsion, in relation to what the sentences express; 
as 1 could not but believe that John would surmount his 
difficulties, and soon be at rest in his affairs. This indi- 
cates that circumstances had forced conviction upon me ; 
that I could not avoid believing what I have described in 
relation to* John. Other examples. — I can but (or only) 
hope that the commercial aspect of the country will be 
improved. I can not but believe (can not avoid believing) 
that the commercial aspect of the country will be im- 
proved. 

Down is a modifier ; as, I threw the book down. A 
relative; as, I went down the stairs. I sailed down the 
river. 

[Relatives not used after an asserter, preceded by than 
or as, become modifiers, when words in the objective case 
do not follow them ; as, relatives, James went before the 



1 88 ACCOMMODATJ VES. 

carriage, and Henry behind it. — Modifiers ; as, While we 
were traveling, James went before and Henry behind.'] 

Each is a distributive specifying adname ; as, Each 
scholar should study for himself. It is a modifier : as, I 
bought my pears for a penny each. 

For is a relative, except when it is used in the place, or 
the sense, of because ; as, I did not lie down, for I knew 
that I should not sleep ; in which case it is a modifying 
connective. 

Except, and Excepting, when denoting a state of ex- 
elusion, but not the act of excluding, are relatives: as, 
All my friends are in good health, except John. Other- 
wise they are asserters. [This may also be said of save 
and saving.] 

Round, is an adname ; as a round building: it is a re- 
lative*, as, I went round [or around] the house. 

Since, is a relative ; as, I have not seen James since 
yesterday: a modifier ; as, I saw William when I was in 
Utica, but I have heard of him since : a modifying con- 
nective, when expressive of cause ; as, 

Since life is no more than a passage at best ; 

Let us strew the way over with flowers. — H. More. 

Let us, (since life can little more supply 
Than just to look about us, and to die,) 
Expatiate free o'er all the ways of man: 
A mighty maze, but not without a plan. — Pope. 
The is a definite specifying adname, when belonging 
to a name or adname substitute : but a definite specifier 
when belonging to a sentence, in marking proportion ; as, 
Henry : the faster you run, the sooner you will overtake 
James. 

Which is a connective substitute ; as, I ate the apple 
which James had given me. It is an interrogative substi- 
tute when used without a name, to interrogate ; as, Which 
is better, Virtue, with happiness and honor ; or Vice, with 
misery and disgrace? It is an interrogative adname ; as, 
Which apple is sweet? [t is a definite specifying adname ; 
as, James told me which apple I should take. 

What is used as an interrogative substitute ; as, " What 
shall I do that I may inherit eternal life ?" an interrogative 
adname ; as, What man goeth to war at his own expense I 



SYNTAX. 189 

It is a connective substitute in the two-fold case; as, Wil- 
liam ate three peaches, and I took what he had left. It is 
an exclamatory adname ; as, What men, James and John 
are ! It is an exclamation ; as, 

" What ! shall an African, shall Juba's heir, 

Reproach great Cato's son ; 

And show the world a virtue wanting in a Roman soul?" 

As an exclamation it may be joined to but ; as, But what ! 
is thy servant a dog ? It may be joined with though or if 
to constitute a modifying committee to supply the place 
of although or in case. What if I should speak; no one 
would be hurt. 

Neither is an adname ; as, neither person that 1 met was 
armed : a modifying connective ; as, I will neither strike 
my friend, nor desert him. 

Either is used as an adname or modifying connective ; as, 
Either lad can do the work ; I will either go to Utica or 
send William there. 

As well as is a modifying connective when referring to 
manner ; as, James writes as well as Henry can. Otherwise 
it is a simple connective ; as, James can go to school as 
vjell as Henry. 

SYNTAX. 

Of what does Syntax treat? 

It treats of arranging and combining words to form them 
into sentences. 

What is a Sentence? 

It is an assemblage of words expressing some fact or 
event, and making full sense of itself; having in it an as- 
serter and a word or phrase, on which it depends for sense ; 
as, John lives. Where is James ? Henry ; study your 
lesson. 

Of how many kinds are sentences? 

They are of two kinds — Primary and Secondary. They 
are also called Simple and Compound. 

What is a Primary sentence ? 

It is one which represents an event as though uncon- 
nected with any other and makes full sense of itself, or 
without dependence on another combination ; as, John 
assisted Henry. We started for Europe, 



190 SENTENCES. 

What is a Secondary sentence ? 

It is one which expresses the occurrence of some entire 
event, but represents it as connected with some other 
event, and always has, for his asserter, one in the Unlimi- 
ted mode, independent ; as, John having returned, we 
started on our journey. James being sick, William re- 
mained. 

What is a Simple sentence ? 

It is a primary sentence standing by itself; as, John 
works. Henry studies his books. William was studious. 
Seth prefers his company, 

What are the principal component parts of a simple 
sentence ? 

They are the word or phrase in the subjective case, de- 
noting the subject of remark ; the asserter, and, when the 
asserter is used transitively, some word in the objective 
case denoting the object of the action, influence or effect, 
expressed by the asserter; as, James walks. John learn- 
ed his lesson. [In the first example, the name James, de- 
notes the person who is the subject of that remark; and 
the word walks is the asserter depending for sense on the 
name James. In the other example, the name John de- 
notes the subject of the remark ; learned is the asserter, 
and lesson is the word in the objective case denoting the 
object of the action expressed by the asserter learned. 

What is a Phrase ? 

It is a combination of words not amounting to a com- 
plete sentence but expressing a set of ideas, either sepa- 
rately from a sentence, or in connexion with one ; as, An 
elegant house. John went to TJtica. 

Of what does an Appendant phrase consist? 

It consists of a name or substitute and a relative, (with, 
or without other words attached to the name or substitute,) 
joined, by means of the relative, to a sentence, for express- 
ing ideas in connexion with the sentence ; as, James lives* 
This is a sentence. [See the chain, p. 52.] James lives near 
the house. This is a sentence with one appendant phrase. 
[See the chain.] James lives near the house of Seth. A 
simple sentence with two appendant phrases. [See the 
chain.] James lives near the house of Seth in the city. 
A sentence with three appendant phrases. [See the chain.] 
James lives near the house of Seth in the city of New York, 



SENTENCES. 191 

A Sentence with four appendant phrases. [See the chain.] 
James lives near the house of Seth in the city of New- 
York, on Manhattan Island, [ ki M'n Island"] A sen- 
tence with live appendant phrases. [See the chain.] 

N. B. In every appendant phrase you will always find 
a relative and a word in the objective case. Remember 
too, thstt any name or substitute, joined by a connective, 
in the same simple sentence, to the objective word of an 
appendant, must itself, be in the objective case. / spoke, 
is a sentence. I spoke to Henry, is a sentence with one 
appendant phrase, and the name Henry in that appendant 
phrase, is in the objective case. I spoke to Henry and 
William. Here the name William being joined by and 
to the name Henry, is in the same case as that name. ■-] 

An asserter may occur after several appendant phrases, 
and, referring to one of the objectives in an appendant 
phrase, or to the word in the subjective case, may begin a 
new series of appendant phrases ; as, I visited Horatio in 
Utica to induce him to accompany me on my tour — to the 
far- West. 

Example of phrases not appendant: 

An elegant house. A fine prospect. Persevering ar- 
dor. Untiring industry and skill ! Ambitious fools I 
Glorious hope ! O ! unexhausted love ! 

Of what does a Compound sentence consist ? 

It consists of two primary sentences, or one primary arid 
one secondary sentence, united ; as, James went home, and 
John returned. James having gone home, John returned. 
James went home, but he soon returned. 

Members of Sentences. 

Of what does a Member of a Compound sentence con- 
sist? 

It consists of one of the sentences of which the com- 
pound is made, including the asserter, the word or phrase 
denoting the subject, and the appendants connected with 
the remark. 

Example. John went with his brother to the school- 
house, but he did not go in with him. Here is a compound 
sentence : John went with his brother to the school-house. 



192 REMARKS ON PARSING. 

being one member of the compound sentence, and he did 
not go in with him, the other. 

Of what does a Member of a Simple sentence consist? 

It consists of the asserter, the word or phrase denoting 
the subject, the word denoting the object, or any append- 
ant phrase connected with the remark ; as, John went 
with his brother to the school-house. Here the name 
John is one member of the sentence, and went another. 
These two words, as parts or members, constitute or form 
a complete sentence. With his brother, (an appendant 
phrase,) is another member of the same sentence ; and, to 
the school-house, is the fourth and last member or compo- 
nent part of this simple sentence. 

PARSING. 

Is describing the nature, use, and powers of words, and, 
when they are united in a sentence, their relation to, and 
dependence and influence on each other. 

GENERAL REMARKS ON PARSING. 

Find what are the limits of the sentence given you for 
your parsing. See whether or not there are words enough 
in the sentence for expressing fully and ^clearly, the ideas 
which the author would convey. If there are not words 
enough used to express the ideas, supply the deficiency. 
If there are too many, throw out the superfluous words. 
Make the sentence stand as it should be spoken. 

Then find the asserter, which, taken only with a word 
in the subjective case, will make sense, as far as the sense 
extends. If the asserter is transitive, see whether or not 
it should have a word in the objective case depending on 
it; if so, find that word. If the asserter is intransitive, 
and has many words joined to it, divide them into append- 
ant phrases. [See this particularly illustrated by Plate II, 
Page 52.] 

When this shall have been done, begin with the word 
in the subjective case, (or the words preceding it, and de- 
pending on it, if there are any,) parse that word and the 
asserter, according to their natures and relation to each 
other; and all the other words of the sentence according 
to their natures, and their relation to each other, and their 
relation to either of these, or both combined. 



&BMARKS ON PARSING. 193 

Be careful to give, if pos&ible, such an analysis of the 
sentence as will represent the sense of the piece, and the 
meaning of the author, without forcing words to represent, 
in the sentence, what, in their individual capacity, they 
would not represent. 

Never put in words, under the mere pretence of " sup- 
plying the ellipsis," when there are words enough in the 
sentence to form a regular dependent construction, and 
express the meaning of the author. If you find sentences, 
properly constructed, and cannot find a treatise on the 
language, that furnishes rules for parsing them without 
destroying the sense, foree, or elegance, of the expression ; 
condemn, without hesitancy, your theory of pretended 
grammar^ and seek another, or rely on your own resources 
and form your own rules for parsing ; adapting those rules 
to the principles of the language as it is, and as it should 
be, spoken or written. 

ORDER OF PARSING. 

Distinguish the parts of speech : and, in giving the 
minor distinctions, follow the order in which they 
are laid down on the chart, and in the book. When 
you shall have become able to define all the parts of 
speech, and their respective properties or qualities, you 
need not spend your time in repeating the reasons which 
you fully understand, but should name their various dis- 
tinctions ; and explain their relation to, and dependence 
on, each other, giving the rules which describe those rela- 
tions and dependences. 

In parsing a name or substitute in the twofold case de- 
noting the possessor of something, you will give part 2 of 
the analytical rule III ; then describe its dependence 
or relation, from its representation of the other case, and 
give the rule applicable to the other case. 

In parsing a word in any other twofold case, name its 
relations to the sentence, and give the same rule for each 
relation that would have been applied, in case it sustained 
only that single relation to the sentence. When a name 
is used without adnames, to act the part of a modifier or 
adname, give its distinctive traits, as a name, till you come 
to case, which it loses in being an adname or modifier; 
[though it retains case when acting as an interrogative or 

17 



194 REMARKS ON PARSING. 

replier ; being, of course, in such places, in the independent 
case,] tell how, as an adname or modifier, it exerts its in* 
fluence, and give the rule applicable to that part of speech 
whose place it assumes. 

When an asserter in the unlimited mode independent, is 
used, with any of the variations of am or be, to express 
only one fact or event, let the two parts be parsed as one 
asserter ; as, James was always trying some new scheme. 
When, however, the asserter, in the unlimited mode 
independent, is, for the purpose of qualification or expla- 
nation, joined, with its attendant words, to the sentence 
before expressed, it is to be parsed as a separate asserter: 
as, James was never idle; ajways trying' some new 
scheme. 

In parsing words which bear the names of two parts of 
speech, (as assertive adnames,) tell how far, and in what 
respect, they partake of the natures of those parts of speech 
whose names they bear ; what is their influence on the 
sentence ; and give the rules lelating to them. 

Remember, that a modifying connective, commencing a 
reply, to a foregoing interrogation, refers to facts men- 
tioned in the interrogative sentence, in the same manner 
as though these facts were expressed affirmatively by a 
part of the sentence, at the head of which the modifying 
connective stands. It then connects ideas, although not 
sentences ; for it throws the reference back upon the 
foregoing sentence. Thus : Why did Henry strike the 
stranger? Because he could not escape from him. 

A relative, too, expresses, in a phrase constituting an 
answer, the relation of the fact or matter described by the 
interrogative sentence, to the object denoted by the word 
depending on the relative in the answering phrase. Thus : 
William ; with whom did you converse in the parlor this 
morning? " With Walter." 

Remember, that every part of speech and subdivision is 
named according to its general use, and that when it is 
applied to some purpose different from what its name or 
definition would represent, you are to describe its applica- 
tion as it is, if it is allowable, and to change the applica- 
tion when you find it wrongly applied ; and, 

Last ; Remember that in science, as in morals, authority 
cannot make right, what, in itself, is wrong; or make 



ANALYTICAL RULES. 195 

toron^ what, in itself, is right — That, in Science, Religion, 
and Law, in Philosophy, in every thing, the language 
of the inquirer for truth should be, " How is this matter?" 
not, " How have other men regarded it !" 

ANALYTICAL RULES; 

APPLIED IN PARSING, AND ALSO USED AS GUIDES IN 
COMPOSITION. 

Rule 1. Part 1. A word in the subjective case, has an 
asserter immediately depending on it for sense, except 
when it is used after another subjective, and immediately 
preceded by than, as, or not. Thus — John loves fruit. 
William ; give me your book. Where is Henry ? 

Note, This rule is to be applied in parsing a word in the simple or 
twofold subjective case ; but not in parsing a word in the twofold, that 
represents diffe rents cases, unless one of them is the subjective. 

Examples for Parsing. 

John went to Utica last week. William sent a letter by 
him. John ; study your lesson. The wise man says, 
" Who can instruct me ; or advance me in knowledge V 
The fool's cry is, " Who will show us any fun ? Who can 
make us sport?" James having written the letter, /sealed 
it and carried it to the office. Whoever will do the work, 
shall receive the reward. Whatever man desires wisdom 
can obtain it. The birds singing sweetly, I joined them 
in song. 

Part 2. A word in the subjective case, following another 
subjective, and immediately preceded by than, as, or 
not, may be used without an asserter immediately depend- 
ing on it for sense. 

Note. When this word in the subjective case, refers to something 
different from what is expressed by the asserter in the sentence, it should 
have its own asserter : also, when the clearness of the sentence would 
require the asserter, to prevent ambiguity : thus, I can lift the weights as 
easily as you. This may mean as easily as I can lift you ; or, as you can 
lift the weights. If the former is the sense intended, I should say, I can 
lift the weights as easily as lean you : if the latter is the sense, I should 
say, I can lift the weights as easily as you can. 

Examples for Parsing. 
Martin is more frivolous than Henry, He was at school 



196 ANALYTICAL SLtJXEf. 

as regularly as William. Truth is better than error. Solo- 
mon is as industrious as Rufus ; and more frugal than Ed- 
mund. Nathan, not Julius, teaches school in our city. 
He who desolates nations, is a greater villain than he who 
steals horses ; yet one is admired, and the other, detested. 
Rulers, as much as private citizens, are bound to do Jus- 
tice, nationally, as well as individually. 

Rule II. Part 1. An asserter has a direct dependence 
on a name or substitute, except when, in a simple sentence, 
it is used after the subjective or objective word of the other 
part of the sentence; and immediately preceded hy than 
or as : or when used in a mode-absolute. 

Examples for Parsing. 

John loves fruit. William ; give me your book. Where 
is Henry ? Truth should be spoken, when we speak at alL 
Life is a brief space : we should, then, improve it, What 
man can say, " I am not frail ]" James ; be attentive. Wil- 
liam ; comehere. Where have you been ? Whom did you 
see ? What did he say to you ? " This day be bread and 
peace my lot." " Be it so. We part for ever." 

[In the last two examples the asserters are in the com- 
manding mode, expressing, in one example, desire ; 
in the other, consent. When thus used, the commanding 
mode of the asserter may depend on a word of the third 
person. See the commanding mode page 80.] 

Part 2. An asserter, in a complex sentence, following 
a subjective or objective word of the other part of the sen- 
tence, and immediately preceded by than or as, does not 
require a name or substitute as its own peculiar depend- 
ence. 

Examples for Parsing. 

John has more fruit than can be gathered in a week. 
More fruit was gathered than could be used in a year. 
Such persons as could swim, were saved from the wreck ; 
such as could not, were drowned. William forgave such of 
his enemies as appeared sorry for the wrong that they had 
done. The travellers ate such nuts and shellfish as could 
be found : and by that means saved themselves from star- 
vation. As many persons as saiv the signs, believed. 



ANALYTICAL RULES. 197 

Part 3. An asserter may be used in the Commanding 
or the Unlimited mode-absolute ; that is, without having a 
name or substitute as its dependence. [See the last para- 
graph beginning on page 80.] 

Examples for Parsing. 
God said, " Let there be light." Let a man be ever so 
wealthy, if he is not intelligent and virtuous, he is miser- 
ably poor. Remember the Sabbath-day to keep. Be sure 
to seek happiness only in the way of duty. Let not your 
hearts be troubled. Strive to improve your time. Be 
diligent and frugal : be open and sincere. 

Part 4. An asserter in the unlimited mode, except when 
used in an absolute sense, refers to, and depends on, a name 
or substitute, which may be in the subjective or the objec- 
tive case : and when it is not in the dependent form, or in 
the completive form of the indefinite tense, it may depend 
on a word in the possessive case. 

Examples for Parsing. 
John was requested to teach the pupil to read. William 
desired me to write to him. I had intended to write, but 
could not, during my absence from home. 

" Teach me to feel another's wo ; [and] 
To hide what faults I see." 
Rule III. A word in the simple possessive case, must 
precede and depend on the term denoting the object pos- 
sessed. 

Examples for Parsing. 
John took his book with him. My geography was lost 
at school. John's brothers wife died of the consumption. 
William's father's son, is my son's father. William is, 
then, my brother. Peace of mind, is Virtue's reward to 
her votaries. 

Ill-fated White ! while life was its spring ; 
When thy young muse had waved her joyous wing; 
The Spoiler swept thy soaring lyre away, 
Which would have sounded an immortal lay. 
Oh ! what a noble heart was here undone ; 
When Science' self destroy'd her fav'rite son ! 
Yes ! she, too much, indulg'd thy fond pursuit ; 
She sowed the seeds ; but Death has reap'd the fruit. 
Byron, on the genius and death of H. K. White* 
17* 



198 ANALYTICAL RULES. 

Part 2. A word in the twofold case, representing the 
possessive, must also sustain to a sentence, the relation 
of one or other of the simple cases. 

Examples for Parsing. 
William's ship was wrecked ; but mine outrode the 
gale. John's books were bought in Boston ; but Henry's 
came from New York. James took his book, and left 
mine. Whose books will Richard use ? Angelina's. I 
hoped for Henry's health \ and tried to save my own. 

Rule IV. Part 1. A subsequent name or substitute 
given addition to a prior one, for the purpose of emphasis 
or explanation, must be in the same case. 

Examples for Parsing. 

John, himself, will go to Buffalo. William Jackson— 
Secretary, reported the proceedings. New York, the 
chief city in the United Stales, contains three hundred and 
fifty thousand inhabitants. Truth, the gold of life, can 
not be overvalued. John Williams, merchant, resides in 
Cazenovia. Intemperance, the bane of life, makes Nature 
sigh and weep. 

Part 2. A name in the possessive case f may be used 
without the possessive sign, when given to show the cha- 
racter or capacity of the object denoted by the possessive 
words to which it refers. 

Examples for Parsing. 

John's business as a philosopher, is, not to show, as faci 9 
what never existed ; but to represent matters as they are ; 
showing their combinations and causes. William's fame 
as a teacher, was unrivalled. Napoleon's success, as a 
warrior, made him imprudently arbitrary as a statesman. 

Rule V. A name, substitute, or substitute-phrase, in 
the independent case, may refer to the sense expressed by 
a sentence, and may, or may not, have other words refer- 
ring to that. 

Examples in Parsing. 

John: I shall go home to-morrrow. " Cain : where is 
thy brother?" Julius : Henry will start in the morning 



ANALt'flCAL RULES. 199 

(no matter for that,) in the steamer Liverpool, for England, 
Henry : are you well ? 

" O Death ! the poor man's dearest friend : 

The kindest and the best !" 

" O Life ! thou art a galling load % 

A long, a rough, a dreary road, 
To such a wretch as I." 

Oh Fools I who think to find in death r 
What manly firmness only gives ! 

Ah Him! the first great martyr in this great cause f 

Webster. 
To confess the truth t I was in fault. Ah me I a hapless 
wretch ! 

Rule VI. A transitive asserter requires a word in the 
objective case, depending on it for sense ; except when the 
asserter is used in a general sense, or following another 
asserter, and is preceded by than or as. 

Examples in Parsing. 
James owns the book which William found. " Whom 
scekest thou ?" Where shall I find my friend 1 . Those 
who teach others, should not err, themselves. The bliss 
which man enjoys, and the evils that he endures, should 
instruct him to be wise. The more attention yon shall 
bestow on your studies, the greater proficiency you will 
make. John told me whom to take with me, 

Rule VII. A transitive asserter, except when in the 
unlimited mode, must be used without an objective word 
depending on it, when it is used to express a fact in a gene- 
ral manner, or in a particular manner, if it follows another 
asserter, and is preceded by than or as* 

Examples for Parsing. 
John writes elegantly. James has more books than he 
can read. The farmer had more land than he could till. 
Henry bought more fruit than he can eat. The orator 
spoke very well and very distinctly. Seth speaks fluently 
in conversation. John has greater tasks than he can learn* 
The merchant has as many goods as he can sell this year. 

Rule VIII. A transitive asserter may have depending 
on it, two objective words not joined by a connective, when 



200 ANALYTICAL RULES. 

one denotes the object of the action or influence, expressed 
by the asserter, and the other, the object to, or for, which 
the action is performed or the influence exerted. 

Examples for Parsing. 
" Son ; give me thy heart" " God will provide himself 
a lamb for the offering." " And the king of Sodorn said, 
Give me the persons, but take the goods for thyself." " For- 
give us our trespasses*" "Give us o \xv daily bread" 
James sent me a letter ; but I could not give him an an- 
swer as early as he had desired. 

Rule IX. A nominal of an intransitive asserter occur- 
ring after it and depending on it, causes it to assume a tran- 
sitive relation to the sentence* The substitute for the 
nominal has the same effect. [See nominals at trre bottom 
of page 79.] 

Examples for Parsing. 
John ran the race of a mile, in six minutes. " I have 
fought the good fight; and shall soon sleep the sleep of 
death. I struck a heavy blow with my hatchet, and killed 
the wolf on the spot. The race which Seth ran, was very 
short. May I live the life of the righteous, that I may die 
his death* 

Rule X. A receptive asserter may have depending on 
it a word in the objective case, denoting something that is 
represented as pertaining to the subject of remark. 

Examples for Parsing. 
James was offered a horse, and money for his expenses. 
Scott was tendered a public dinner as a token of the re- 
spect and good-will of his fellow-citizens. William was 
paid a thousand dollars as his salary. 

Rule XI. Part 1. An intransitive or receptive asserter 
may have a word in the subjective case before, and another 
in the subjective after it, if both words refer to and denote 
the same thing. 

Examfles for Parsing. 
John is my friend. Webster was re-elected Senator. 
The child was named Samuel. The secretary was made 



ANALYTICAL RULES. 201 

president. The shepherd became sovereign. The wealthy 
man became a beggar. The temperate drinker of intoxi- 
cating beverage will, most likely, become a drunkard, 
" Richard is himself again." Julius hopes to become a 
civil engineer. 

Part 2. An intransitive asserter may have before it as its 
dependence, two words, not joined by a connective, when 
one is a connective or interrogative substitute, and the 
other a name or other substitute. 

Examples for Parsing. 
James is the man that I thought he was. John, what- 
ever he may be as a scholar, is unfit, on account of his 
temper, to govern and direct a school. Jane is what I had 
understood she was. You must take Henry for what he 
is. That person, whoever he is, appears like a statesman 
in his pride. 

" O ! bless'd with temper, whose unclouded ray 
Will prove, to-morrow, what it is to-day." 

Part 3. An intransitive or receptive asserter in the un- 
limited mode, depending on a word in the possessive case, 
may have, after it, a word in the subjective case, denoting 
the same thing : And, when it acts the part of an assertive 
name, depending on a relative, it may have after it a word 
in the subjective case. 

Examples for Parsing. 
John's being my friend, saved me from inconvenience. 
WilliamSs having become a judge, changed his whole de-» 
meanor. Seth Hamilton was unhappy in being a slave to 
party prejudice. 

Rule XII. Either a principal or an auxiliary asserter, 
may be so used as to represent itself and the other; or as 
a substitute asserter may, with its subjective word, may 
represent the affirmative sense of the sentence before it, to 
which it refers* 

Examples for Parsing. 
If the wicked shall turn from his wickedness, and da 
what is lawful and right, he shall not die. Henry can read 
Latin as well as he can Greek. William cannot write 



202 ANALYTICAL RULES. 

legibly when he writes fast ; but John can. Though 
virtue cannot exist without intelligence ; yet intelligence 
can, without virtue. 

" The Lord my pasture will prepare, 
And feed me with a shepherd's care." 

Rule XIII. Part 1. A primary adname must belong 
to, and depend on, the term denoting the object to which 
it refers. 

Examples for Parsing. 

James, who is generous, had given me the sweet apples 
which I ate. John is happy and contented. The period of 
man's life is short. New discoveries change the relative 
rank of many individuals. A white house is a more plea- 
s ant object for contemplation than a black one. The tiger 
is fierce : the lion is terrible. The elephant is large and 
strong. The wise and the good are the salt of the world. 

Part 2. A secondary adname qualifies the sense ex- 
pressed by a primary ; and with that, belongs to, and de- 
pends on, the term denoting the object to which both refer. 

Examples for Parsing. 

John gave ten very large apples. Henry was always, 
at school, very remarkably studious. John is more than 
five years older than William. The monument is two 
hundred feet high. The well is three hundred and sixty- 
five feet deep. Solomon was, in some matters, very wise, 
but, in others, remarkably foolish. Amos bought a re- 
markably deep blue coat. 

Part 3. The, as a definite specifier, may be joined to 
corresponding parts of a compound sentence, to mark 
proportion in relation to a matter. 

Examples for Parsing. 

James, the faster you run, the sooner you will over- 
take Seth. John, the more attentively you study, the 
greater will be your proficiency. The earlier you rise, (if 
you retire to rest in season,) the better will be your health. 



ANALYTICAL RULES. 203 

The more I contemplate the character of John, the more I 
am pleased with him. 

Rule XIV. Part I. A primary modifier modifies the 
meaning or sound, of the sentence or clause of a sentence, 
in which it occurs. 

Examples in Parsing. 
James went home with Henry, who kindly invited him 
to spend his holyday entirely with him. John carelessly 
left his book where he can never rind it again. I care not 
a pin for the applause of the mob. Jane sings delight- 
fully. Horace writes elegantly. Helen moves grace- 
fully. I traveled three days and two hundred and thirty 
miles westward, with Giles Henry. 

Part 2. A secondary modifier qualifies the sense ex- 
pressed by a primary, and through that, the meaning of the 
sentence in which it occurs. 

Examples for Parsing. 

James went almost home with Henry, who very kindly 
invited him to his father's residence. John very care- 
lessly left his book on the stone wall. I traveled with 
Giles Henry almost three days ; and more than two hun- 
dred miles. Horace lived with me almost all winter. He 
learned more than five times faster than 1 had ever known 
him to learn before. 

Rule XV. A primary relative requires after it, and in 
the objective case, the word denoting the object to which 
it shows the relation of an event or another object : [ex- 
cept when standing at the conclusion of a compound sen- 
tence, whose last member is preceded by than or as.] 
Examples for Parsing. 

If men would allow themselves to expect more happi- 
ness in this state of existence, they would render this life 
more agreeable to themselves and others ; and by the prac- 
tical discharge of their duties here, they would be made 
more secure of happiness in the life to come. Those who 
declaim against this world, as a barren waste, destitute of 
enjoyment, and place all their hopes of felicity in the next, 
are not the most likely to enjoy existence, or to prove 
themselves really the benefactors of their race. 



204 ANALYTICAL RULES. 

Lesson II. 

They are like speculators, who pass through a country* 
not to fix their abode in it, and to improve it, but to en- 
rich themselves at the country's expense, and then to de- 
camp, to enjoy their treasures in the place of their perma- 
nent abode. Those who, in their weakness, confine their 
views exclusively to themselves, in this life, are like fools 
who know that they must emigrate ; yet, instead of cultiva- 
ting the soil 07i which they are located, and procuring bills 
of exchange to ensure to them competence and comfort in 
their final resting place, they scrape together and pile 
around them what makes the fertile valley become a desert 
— deprives them of present enjoyment, and at their de- 
parture, rends them with the double torture of viewing the 
choicely kept, unenjoyed stores, which they must leave 
behind, and the dread and dismay of the future destitution 
to which they haste. 

Part 2. A secondary relative qualifies the sense ex- 
pressed by the primary, and belongs to, and depends on, 
the primary. 

Examples for Parsing. 

In the valley of the Mohawk whole trees are found 
twenty feet below the surface of the earth. The child 
sunk almost to the bottom of the stream. The summit of 
the highest mountain is more than twenty thousand feet 
above the level of sea. John writes more like Richard than 
Henry does. William is less like Julius than he is like 
George. 

Part 3. Than, immediately followed by a connective 
substitute, and words denoting comparison, becomes a re- 
lative, and as such has after it and depending on it, a word 
in the objective case ; as, Washington, than whose fame 
naught earthly, purer has been seen, was appropriately 
termed the Father of his country. Bonaparte, than whom 
was never given, a more striking illustration of the power 
and frailty of man, and the inconstancy of human affairs; 
rose, like a meteor from the sea, to dazzle, cheer, and appal, 
then set, by prisoned solitude in ocean exile, amidst the 
deepening gloom of hopeless decline. 

Part 4. A relative at the conclusion of a compound sen- 



PARSING. 205 

tence whose last member is preceded by than or as, may 
be used without a word in the objective case after it and 
depending on it for sense ; as, The political demagogue 
had more office seeking friends than he could provide for. 
I have as many correspondents as I can write to. 

Rule XVI. Part 1. A connective, or the word not 
joining a subsequent word to a prior one of the same 
class, causes it to assume the same relation to the 
sentence that the one to_ which it is connected sustains ; 
William or Henry must go home. Richard slept and was 
destroyed. I spoke to, of and before my friends, who 
were engaged in the same cause. Seth is contented and 
happy. When and where shall I see Henry.* James 
writes elegantly and rapidly. 

Part 2. An adname may be joined by a connective or 
the word not to an asserter formed by the union of any of 
the variations of am or he, with the form of another asserter 
in the unlimited mode ; as, John is dying, but contented and 
happy. William is much fatigued, but very cheerful. 

Restriction. — A connective should never join exclama- 
tions or words of its own class. 

Rule XVII. Part 1. Simple interrogatives and re- 
pliers, and exclamations ; though respectively referring to 
the sense expressed by the words of a sentence, stand, ne- 
vertheless, distinct from the sentence ; as, Oh, John ! I 
must leave you I " Why? Can you not remain longer?" 
No. 

Part 2. Modifying adnames, interrogatives, and con- 
nectives, modify the meaning of the sentences in which 
they occur; as,, James : wlien will John return from the 
West? I saw William where he had left his brother. I 
polished the marble smooth. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Lesson \. 

Illustration of Rule I, part 1. 

Sentence. — " My son ; give ear to the counsel of thy 
father, and forsake not the law of thy mother." — Proverbs. 

* When, where, while, till, and how, because, in case, lest and provided 
and other modifiers of the same general character, may connect sen- 
tences, but not single words. 

18 



206 PARSING. 

my is a substitute ; simple ; common ; of the the first person ; 
in the singular form ; the possessive case ; written according to 
rule III, part 1. 

son is a name ; general ,• masculine ; of the second person ; in the 
singular form ; regular ; in the subjective case ; having the asserter g-ire 
depending on it for sense, according to rule I, part 1. 

give is an asserter ; transitive ; in the commanding mode ; in the 
present tense ; in the completive form ; irregular, and depending for 
sense on the name son, according to rule 2, part 1. 

ear is a name ; general ; neuter ; of the third person ; in the singular 
form ; regular ; in the objective case ; denoting the object of action ex- 
pressed by the asserter give, written according to rule VI, part 1. 

To the counsel is an appendant phrase. See plate II. 

to is a relative ; primary ; showing the relation of the event of the 
son's giving ear, to the object, counsel. 

the is an adname ; specifying ; definite ; belonging to the name 
counsel, according to rule XIII, part 1. 

counsel is a name ; general ; neuter ; of the third person ; in the 
singular form ; regular ; in the objective case ; denoting the object of re- 
lation expressed by the relative to ; written according to rule XV, part 1. 

Of thy father is an appendant phrase. See plate II. 

of is a relative ; primary ; showing the relation existing between the 
two objects, the counsel, and the father. ~ 

thy is a substitute ; simple ; common ; (in this place applied to a 
male object) of the second person ; in the singular form ; in the posses- 
sive case ; written according to rule III, part 1. 

father is a name ; general ; masculine ; of the third person ; in the 
singular form ; regular; in the objective case, denoting the object of 
relation expressed by the relative of; written according to rule XV, part 1. 

and is a connective ; simple ; connecting the two asserters with their 
appendants. 

forsake is an asserter ; transitive ; in the commanding mode ; in the 
completive form ; irregular ; in the present tense ; connected with give, 
by the connective and, and depending for sense on the name son, accord- 
ing to rule II, part l._. 

not is a modifier ; of negation ; modifying the sense of the name son, 
as connected with the part of the sentence following and, as, my son for- 
sake not the law of thy mother, according to rule XIV, part 1. 

the is an adname ; specifying ; definite ; belonging to the name law, 
according to rule XIII, part 1. 

law is a name ; general ; neuter ; of the third person ; in the singu- 
lar form ; regular ; in the objective case, denoting the object of action 
expressed by the asserter forsake ; written according to rule VI, part 1. 

Of thy mother is an appendant phrase. 

of is a relative ; primary ; showing the relation existing between the 
objects the law, and the mother. 

thy is a substitute ; simple ; common, (applied to a male object,) of 
the second person ; in the singular form ; the possessive case ; written 
according to rule III, part 1. 

mother is a name ; general ; feminine ; of the third person ,• in the 
singular form ; regular ; in the objective case, denoting the object of a 



PARSING. 207 

relation expressed by the relative of; written according to rule XV, 
part 1. 

Part II. 

Illustration of part 2 of Rule I. 
Sentence— John has more fruit than Henry. 

John is a name ; particular ; masculine ; in the singular form ; in the 
subjective case, and written according to rule I, part 1. 

has is an asserter; transitive ; in the declarative mode ; the indefinite- 
past tense ; in the completive form, it. is irregular; it depends for sense 
on the name John, and is written according to rule II, part 1. 

more is an adname ; specifying ; indefinite ; in the comparative form : 
Simple, much ; Comparative more ; Superlative most. It belongs to, and 
depends on, the name fruit, according to rule XIII, part 1. 

fruit is a name ; general ; neuter ; of the third person ; in the sin- 
gular form ; regular ; in the objective case ; denoting the object of the 
influence, (exercised towards the fruit, and) expressed by the asserter 
has. Rule VI, part 1. 

than is a connective ; modifying ; it is used to express inequality 
of proportion in relation to the possession of fruit ; written according 
to rale XIV, part 1. 

Henry is a name ; particular ; masculine ; of the third person ; in 
the singular form ; in the subjective case ; representing the man Henry 
as the subject of remark, as much as the man John is so represented 
by the name John. As the sentence stands, it is as much asserted that 
Henry has fruit, as that John has ; though by than's being used instead 
of as, it is not asserted that the former has as much fruit as the latter. 
While, however, it is seen that the asserter has, depends directly on the 
name John ; it is also seen that it does not depend on Henry ; inas- 
much as it makes sense without the latter name ; though it could not 
without the former. The name Henry then is written according to 
part 2 of rule I. 

Lesson II. 

Illustration of the four parts of Rule II. 

Sentences. — John learned faster than could have been 

expected. God said " Let there be light." " Remember 

the Sabbath day, to keep it holy." Maria will be so sick as 

to be unable to leave her room. 

John is a name; particular; masculine ; of the third person ; in the 
singular form ; in the subjective case ; having the asserter learned de- 
pending on it for sense, according to rule I, part 1. 

learned is an asserter ; transitive ; (the word denoting the science 
which he learned being omitted, according to rule VII,) in the declarative 
mode ; indefinite past tense ; in the completive form ; regular ; depending 
for sense on the name John, according to rule II, part 1. 

faster is a modifier ; primary ; in the comparative form ; modifying 



208 PARSING. 

the sense of the sentence in which it occurs, according to rule XIV, 
part 1. 

than is a connective ; modifying ; expressing inequality with respect 
to John's proficiency and that which it could have been expected he would 
make ; thus modifying the sense of the sentence. Rule XVII, Part 2. 

could have been expected is an asserter ; receptive ; in the infe- 
rential mode ; prior-past tense ; in the completive form ; regular ; written 
according to part 2, rule II. 

Note. The sentence is better expressed as it stands, than it would 
have been, had I said, " John learned faster than it could have been ex- 
pected of him that he could or would learn." 

God is a name ; particular ; of the third person ; in the singular form ; 
in the subjective case ; having the asserter said, depending on it for sense 
according to rule I, part 1. 

Note. God, in a general sense, means only an idol, or an object on 
which the first affection of our hearts and our supreme regard are placed ; 
although, when used to denote the Almighty, it is, in sense, a particular 
name. In parsing any name of the Deity, the term masculine, feminine 
or neuter, need not be applied, or even thought of: for, although we 
may regard the Deity, as a being, as strictly neutral as any substance or 
thing which he has made ; as life , or power, or love, wisdom, or good- 
ness, being but the grand concentration and combination of all these glo- 
rious attributes ; and although the term he, as a substitute, should be 
used, when we speak of the Deity, lest, to our minds, the dignity 
of his being should, through the weakness of human conception, be lost, 
by the use of the neuter substitute ; yet, as his relation to the distinc- 
tions of sex, he has never seen fit to reveal, we, as Grammarians, or men, 
have no concern with that property or distinction. In parsing lord, king, 
and other similar terms, we may call them masculine names, because 
generally applied to males ; yet, when applied as the names of God, we 
need not make the application of the terms distinctive of sex. 

said is an asserter ; transitive ; in the declarative mode ; in the inde- 
finite past tense; in the completive form; irregular; it depends for 
sense on the name God, according to rule II, part 1. 

let there be light is a substitute phrase ; showing what God said, 
and in the objective case ; and depending for sense on the transitive as- 
serter said ; yet in parsing the words of this phrase it will be seen that, 

let is an asserter ; transitive ; in the commanding mode absolute ; in 
the present tense ; in the completive form ; irregular ; it is used accord- 
ing to rule II, part 3. 

Note. The reason why this is called the commanding mode is given 
in the definition of the mode on page 80. It has the term absolute 
given as a means of distinction, because when thus used, it is absolute, 
or independent of a name or substitute, on which asserters not in a 
mode-absolute must depend. It is the same form that would be used in 
giving to a person a direct command ; and yet it cannot be imagined 
that the Almighty, in ordaining that light should exist, addressed any 
particular object ; for no one but himself had power to make light be : 
much less could it be supposed, as some contend, that he directed the 



PARSING. 209 

command to the light itself, for that was not then in being. Besides, 
if it was in being so that he could command it ; why should he command 
it to be, when it was already existing 1 [being.'] Even though it should 
be pretended that he addressed the inert principles which when acting 
would produce light, (and we have no proof that even those principles 
existed but in his own power,) the mode of let would still be absolute ; 
because used independently even of the name of those principles. So, 
whichever way this may be regarded, the asserter let as here used is seen 
in the commanding mode-absolute. 

there is a modifier of sound and the arrangement of the words of the 
phrase. The smoothness of the expression is aided by the use of there, 
(which does not as here used refer to place,) and the word light is by 
the use of there, made to follow be, instead of preceding it, as it would 
otherwise have done. There is used according to the first part of 
rule XIV. 

be is an asserter ; intransitive ; in the unlimited mode dependent ; 
indefinite tense ; irregular ; depending for sense on the asserter let, and 
also on the name light, according to rule II, part 4. 

light is a name ; general ; neuter ; of the third person ; in the sin- 
gular form ; regular ; in the objective case ; depending on let according 
to rule VI, parti. 

remember, in the next sentence is in the commanding mode- absolute, 
not having or requiring, as it is used in the expression, the names of the 
persons addressed. It is in the present tense ; in the completive form ; 
regular ; used according to part 3, of rule II. [Let the pupil parse 
what words are not parsed.] 

to xeep is an asserter ; transitive ; in the unlimited mode absolute ; 
having no name or substitute on which to depend : but depending on re- 
member in the indefinite tense ; in the completive form ; irregular; and 
used according to part 3, of rule II. 

Maria, in the next sentence, is a name ; particular ; feminine ; of 
the third person ; in the singular form ; in the subjective case ; having 
the asserter will be, depending on it for sense ; being used according to 
rule I. part 1. 

will be is an asserter ; intransitive ; in the declarative mode ; in the 
indefinite-future tense ; irregular ; and depending, according to rule II. 
part 1, on the name Maria. 

so, taken with as, constitutes a corresponding modifying connective, 
joining the latter part of this complex sentence to the former part, and 
represents the fact expressed by the former as the cause of what is ex- 
pressed by the latter ; modifying by that means the sense of the sen- 
tence according to rule XVII. part 2. 

to be is an asserter ; intransitive ; in the the unlimited mode depen- 
dent ; in the indefinite tense ; referring to, and depending on, the name 
Maria ; according to part 4, of rule II ; also (having here a triple de- 
pendence,) on the asserter will be, and the modifying connective so-as. 

unable is an adname ; qualifying; primary; defective; belonging 
to, and depending on the name Maria, written according to rule XIII, 
part 1. 

to leave is an asserter ; transitive ; in the unlimited mode ; in the 
indefinite tense ; in the completive form ; irregular ; and depending, ac- 
18* 



210 PARSING. 

cording to part 4, of rule II. on the name Maria; and having also a de- 
pendence on the adname unable. 

her is a substitute ; simple ; feminine ; of the third person ; in the 
singular form ; in the possessive case ; and preceding, and depending 
on, the name room, according to rule XIII. part 1. 

room is a name ; general ; neuter ; of the third person ; in the singu- 
lar form ; regular ; in the objective case ; denoting the object of the ac- 
tion, expressed by the asserter to leave t according to rule VI. part 1. 

Lesson III. 

Illustration of Parts first and second, of Rule III. 

Sentence. — John's business is good ; but William's is 
unprofitable. 

John's is a name ; particular ; masculine ; of the third person ; in the 
singular form ; in the possessive case ; denoting the possessor of the 
business, and representing the man, denoted by the name John's, as having 
something. It precedes, and depends on, the name business, according 
to rule III, part 1. 

business is a name ; general ; neuter ; of the third person ; in the 
singular form ; defective, of the first class ; in the subjective case ; 
having, according to rule I. part 1, the asserter is, depending on it for 
sense. 

is is an asserter ; intransitive; in the declarative mode ; in the pre- 
sent tense ; irregular ; depends for sense on the name business, accord- 
ing to rule II. part 1. 

good is an adname ; qualifying ; primary ; in the simple form ; sim- 
ple, good; comp. belter; sup. best: it belongs to, and depends on, the 
name business, denoting the object whose state, quality, or condition 
good represents. Rule XIII, part 1. 

but is a connective ; simple ; joining to each other the simple sen- 
tences constituting the compound sentence. 

William's is a name ; particular ; masculine ; of the third person ; in 
the singular form; representing but one possessor: (taking is distinc- 
tion in this matter according to what it represents of the possessor, with- 
out reference to the number of the objects possessed, that it may denote,) 
in the twofold case, denoting the possessor of something, and, from that 
fact,, sustaining the relation of the possessive, and having, according to 
the principle of part 2, of rule III. the asserter is depending on it for 
sense, and from that relation acting the part of a word in the subjective 
case ; being written according to rule I. part 1. 

is is an asserter, parsed like the preceding is, except that it depends 
for sense on the name William's. Rule II. part 1. 

unprofitable is an adname ; qualifying ; primary ; in the simple form ; 
defective; belonging to, and depending on, the name William's: the 
term representing the business whose state or condition it shows : ac- 
cording to rule XIII. 

Lesson IV. 
Illustration of Parts 1 and 2, of Rule IV. 
Sentences. — Truth, the gold of life, can not be over- 



PARSING. 211 

valued. Maria's duty, as a teacher, is to instruct her pu- 
pils in the principles of science. 

truth is a name ; general ; neuter : of the third person : in the sin- 
gular form ; regular ; in the subjective case ; and having the asserter is 
depending on it. Rule I. part 1. 

the is an adname ; specifying ; definite : belonging to, and depend- 
ing on, the term gold, according to rule XIII. part 1. 

gold is a name : general ; neuter ; of the third person ; in the sin- 
gular form ; defective ; of the first class ; in the subjective case ; being 
given in addition to, and explanatory of the name truth, to show by this 
figure, how that is to be regarded. [These two terms, truth and gold, re- 
fer to, and denote the same quality as the subject of remark.] Gold is 
used according to the frrst part of rule IV. part 1. [Pupil : parse the 
remainder of the sentence.} 

Maria's is a name ; particular ; feminine ; of the third person ; in 
the singular form ; in the possessive case : preceding , and depending on 
the name duty, according to rule III. part I. 

duty is a name [Pupil ; give the others distinctions,] having the as- 
serter is depending on it for sense. Hule I, part 1. 

as is a connective ; modifying ; connecting words, and at the same 
time denoting something with respect to the character in which the ob- 
ject denoted by the term following : as thus, modifying the sense ex- 
pressed by the sentence according to rule XVII, part 2. 

a is an adname ; specifying ; indefinite ; belonging to, and depending 
on, the name teacher, according to rule XIII, part 1. 

teacher is a name ; general ; common ; (here applied to a. female) of 
the third person ; in the singular form ; regular ; in the possessive case ; 
from its relation to the name Maria, denoting the same object, being 
written according to rule III, part 2. [Pupil ; parse the rest of the sen- 
tence. ] 



Illustration of Rule V. 

Sentences. — John : where have you been ? To confess 
the truth ; Henry did err in one particular. 

John is a name ; particular ; masculine ; of the second person ; sin- 
gular form ; regular ; in the case-absolute ; written according to rule V. 

where is a modifying interrogative ; qualifying the sense expressed 
by the whole sentence, by referring interrogatively to place, according to 
rule XVII, part 2. 

have been is an asserter ; intransitive ; interrogative mode ; prior 
present tense ; irregular ; depending for sense on the substitute you, 
according to rule II, part 1. 

you is a substitute ; simple ; common ; yet applied to a male, of the 
second person ; plural in form, yet singular in sense ; subjective case ; 
having the asserter have been depending on it for sense. Rule I, part I, 



212 PARSING. 

to confess the truth is a substitute phrase in the independent case ; 
written according to rule V, : while, to parse this phrase separately, we 
must parse, 

to confess as an assertive name in the case-absolute, the is an ad- 
name ; belonging to the name truth, and truth is in the objective case ; 
depending on to confess, which retains its properties as an asserter. 
Rule VI. part 1. 

Lesson VI. 
Illustration of Rule VI. 
Sentences. — -Henry had written the letter which I sent 
away. This is the man whose books I bought. Whom 
did you meet? What man wrote this letter ? 

henry is a name ; [Here give the other distinctions] in the subjec- 
tive case ; having the asserter had written, depending on it for sense. 
Rule I, Part 1. 

had written is an asserter ; transitive ; declarative mode ; comple- 
tive form ; irregular in the prior past tense ; depending on the name 
Henry. Rule II, Part 1. 

the is an adname ; specifying ; definite ; belonging to letter, according 
to rule XIII, part 1. 

letter is a name ; [here give its different distinctions preceding 
case,] in the objective case ; denoting the object of action expressed by 
the transitive asserter had written, and written according to rule VI, 
part 1. 

which is a substitute ; connective ; in the objective case ; depending 
for sense on the asserter sent ; rule VI, part 1. 

l is a substitute ; simple ; common ; of the first person ; singular 
form ; subjective case ; having the asserter sent depending on it for 
sense, according to rule I, part 1. 

sent is an asserter; transitive; declarative mode; indefinite past 
tense ; in the completive form ; regular ; depending for sense on the 
substitute I, according to rule II, part 1. 

away is a modifier ; qualifying the sense expressed by the sentence, / 
sent the letter ; according to rule XIV, part 1. 

this is a substitute ; substituted for the name person, adname ; singu- 
lar form; subjective case ; having the asserter is dependent on it for 
sense, according to rule I, part 1. 

is is an asserter; intransitive; in the declarative mode; present 
tense ; irregular ; depending for sense on the substitute this, according 
to rule II, part 1. 

the is an adname ; specifying ; definite ; belonging to the name man, 
according to rule XIII, part 1. 

man is a name ; [Here give the other distinctions] in the subjective 
case ; written after is ; according to rule XI, part 1. 

whose is a substitute ; connective ; in the possessive case ; depending 
on hooks ; written according to rule III, part 1. 

books is a name ; [Here give the other distinctions] in the objective 
case ; denoting the objects that I bought ; depending on the asserter 
bought; written according to rule VI, part 1. 



PARSING. 213 

l is a substitute ; simple ; common ; of the first person ; in the sin- 
gular form ; in the subjective case ; having the asserter bought depend- 
ing on it for sense, according to rule I, part 1. 

bought is an asserter ; transitive ; in the declarative mode ; inde- 
finite-past tense ; completive form ; irregular ; depending for sense on 
the substitute I, according to rule II, part 1. 

whom is a substitute ; interrogative ; in the objective case, written 
according to rule VI, part 1. 

did meet is an asserter ; transitive ; in the interrogative mode ; in- 
definite-past tense ; completive form ; irregular ; depends forms for sense 
on the substitute you, according to rule II, part 1. 

you is a substitute ; simple ; common ; of the second person ; in the 
plural form ; in the subjective case, having the asserter did meet, de- 
pendent on it for sense, according to rule I, part 1. 

what is an adname ; interrogative ; belonging to the name man, ac- 
cording to rule XIII, part 1. 

man is a name, [Here give the other distinctions,] in the subjective 
case, having the asserter wrote, depending on it for sense, according to 
rule I, part 1. 

wrote is an asserter ; transitive ; in the declarative mode ; the in- 
definite-past tense ; in the completive form ; irregular, depends for sense 
on the name man, according to rule II, part 1. 

this is an adname ; specifying ; definite ; belongs to the name letter 
according to rule XIII, part 1. 

letter is a name, [Here give the other distinctions,] in the objective 
case, depending on wrote ; written according to rule VI, part 1. 

Lesson VIL 
Illustration of Rule VII. 
Sentence. — James has more land than he can till. 



Seth writes elegantly. 



James is a name, [Here give the other distinctions except case,] in 
in the subjective case ; having the asserter has, depending on it for 
sense, according to rule I, part 1. 

has is an asserter : transitive ; (denoting that the possession extends 
from James the possessor, to the land as the thing possessed,) in the 
declarative mode; present tense ; completive form , irregular, and depends 
for sense on the name James, according to rule II, part 1. 

more is an adname ; specifying ; indefinite ; in the comparative form ; 
belongs to land, according to rule XIII, part 1. 

land is a name, [Here give the other distinctions,] in the objective 
case, (denoting the object of the ownership, possession, or occupancy,) 
written according to rule VI, part 1. 

than is a modifying connective, (connecting the two sentences ; and, 
at the same time is used to modify the sense with respect to both sentences, 
showing,' with the aid of other words, the disproportion of the land, to 
the means of tillage,) rule XVII, part 2. 

he is a substitute ; simple ; masculine ; of the third person ; in the 



214 PARSING. 

singular form ; in the subjective case ; having the asserter can iill i de- 
pending on it for sense, according to rule I, part I. 

can till is an asserter ; transitive, (written without a word denoting 
the object, according to rule VII,) in the inferential mode ; in the pre- 
sent tense ; in the completive form ; regular ; depending for sense on 
the substitute he, according to rule II, part 1. 

Seth is a name, [Here give the other distinctions,] in the subjective 
case, and has, depending on it for sense, the asserter writes. Rule I, 
part 1. 

writes is an asserter ; transitive ; expressing in a general manner 
James' act of writing, and written according to rule VII. without a word 
in the objective case to denote the object of the action expressed by the 
asserter write. It is in the declarative mode ; in the present tense ; 
irregular; depending for sense on the name Seth. Rule II, part 1. 

elegantly is a modifier ; primary ; in the simple form ; it modifies 
the meaning expressed by the other two words of the sentence and re- 
ferringalike to the action and the actor, according to rule XIV. part 1. 

Lesson VIII. 

Illustration of Rule VIII. 

Sentence. — James ; pay William the money that you 
hold. 

James is a name, [Here give the various distinctions which it admits,] 
in the subjective case ; having the asserter pay, depending on it for sense, 
according to rule I, part 1. 

pat is an asserter ; transitive ; in the commanding mode ; in the pre- 
sent tense ; in the completive form ; irregular ; and depends for sense 
on James, according to rule II. part 1. 

William and money are both names, [Here give the other distinctions 
pertaining to them,] in the objective case, depending on the asserter 
pay, written according to rule VIII. 

the is an adname ; specifying ; definite ; belongs to money, according 
to rule XIII, part 1. 

that is a substitute ; connective ; in the objective case ; written ac- 
cording to rule VI, part 1. 

you is a substitute ; simple ; common ; of the second person ; in the 
plural form, (referring to, and standing for, a single object,) in the sub- 
jective case, having hold depending on it for sense. Rule I, part 1. 

hold is an asserter ; transitive ; in the declarative mode ; present 
tense ; in the completive form ; irregular, and depending for sense on 
substitute you, according to rule II, part 1. 

Lesson IX. 
Illustration of Rule IX. 
Sentence.— Let me live the life of the righteous. 

let is an asserter ; transitive ; commanding mode absolute ; present 
tense ; irregular, written according to rule II, part 3. 



PARSING. 215 

ME is a substitute ; simple ; common ; of the first person ; in the sin* 
gular form : objective case, written according to rule VI, part 1. 

live is an asserter ; intransitive ; used transitively ; uulimited mode 
dependent ; indefinite tense ; completive form ; irregular, depending for 
sense on the preceding asserter let, and also on the substitute me, accord- 
ing to rule II, part 4. 

the is an adname ; specifying ; definite ; belonging to life, according 
to rule XIII, part 1. 

life is a nominal asserter, (see page 79,) parsed as a name ; general ; 
neuter ; third person ; singular form ; irregular ; objective case, written 
according to rule IX. 

of is a relative ; showing the relation of the objects represented by the 
words life, and righteous. 

the is an adname ; specifying ; definite ; belonging to righteous, ac- 
cording to rule XIII, part 1. 

righteous is a substitute ; adname ; of the third person ; in the sin- 
gular form : in the objective case, (denoting the object of relation ex- 
pressed by the relative of) and written according to rule XV, part 1.* 

Lesson X. 

Illustration of Rule X. 

Sentence. John was offered a horse, and money for 
his expenses. 

John is a name. [Here give the distinctions which precede case.] In 
the subjective case ; having the asserter was offered, depending on it for 
sense, according to rule I. part 1. 

was offered is an asserter ; receptive ; in the completive form ; in 
the declarative mode ; indefinite past tense ; regular ; depending on the 
name John for sense, according to rule II. part 1. 

a is an adname ; specifying ; indefinite ; belongs to the name horse, 
according to rule XIII. part 1. 

horse is a name : [Give the distinctions as usual, remembering that 
horse, as generally used, is a common name.] in the objective case, de- 
noting the object which John was offered, and written according to 
rule X. 

and is a connective ; simple ; connecting the name money with the 
name horse. Rule XVI, part 1. 

money is a name : [give the other distinctions.] in the objective case, 
denoting another object that John was offered, and connected by and 
with the name horse, according to rule XVI. part 1. 

for is a relative ; primary ; showing the relation of the money, to the 
design of its use, one being designed for the other. 

his is a substitute ; simple ; masculine ; of the third person ; in the 
singular form ; possessive case ; and written according to rule III. 
part 1. 

* All substitutes except a few simple ones, are common, and have nothing 
in the form to mark the distinctions of number. 



^16 PARSING* 

expenses is a name \ [Here give the other distinctions.} in the ob- 
jective case ; denoting the object of relation expressed by the relative for, 
written according to rule XV. part 1. 

Lesson XL 
Illustration of Parts 1, 2, and 3, of Rule XL 

Sentences. — The captain was appointed general. Wil- 
liam's having been a teacher, was the cause of the interest 
which he felt in the improvement of school books. Seth 
Hamilton was unhappy in being the slave of party prejudice. 
That man, whoever he may be, resembles J. Randolph. 

the is an adname ; specifying ; definite : and belongs to captain, ac* 
cording to rule XIII. part 1. 

captain is a name ; [Here give the other distinctions.] in the sub- 
jective case ; having the asserter was appointed, depending on it for 
sense, according to rule I. part 1. 

was appointed is an asserter ; receptive ; in the declarative mode ; 
indefinite-past tense ; regular ; completive form ; depending on the name 
captain, according to rule II. part 1. 

general is a name : [Here give the other distinctions.] in the sub- 
jective case ; refering to the same person as the name captain, and writ- 
ten according to rule XI, part 1. 

Note. — The word in the subjective case after the asserter always refers 
to the same person as that in the subjective case before it, although it 
shows the object as being or acting in a state or capacity different from 
that which is denoted by the word in the subjective case before the as- 
serter ; or, at least, represents the object in a new character or capacity. 

William's is a name : [give the other distinctions.] in the possessive 
case ; preceding, and depending on, the substitute-phrase, having been a 
teacher, representing the profession or capacity which had been his ; and 
is writtten according to rule III. part 1. 

Having been a teacher is a substitute-phrase, in the subjective case ; 
having the asserter was depending on it for sense. Rule I. part I. 

In parsing the words of the phrase : 

having been is an asserter ; intransitive ; in the unlimited mode in- 
dependent; prior-past tense ; depending on the name William 1 s ; accord- 
ing to rule II. part 4. 

a is an adname ; specifying ; indefinite ; belonging to, and depend- 
ing on the name teacher. Rule XIII, part 1. 

teacher is a name ; general; common; of the third person; in the 
singular form ; regular ; in the subjective case after the asserter having 
been ; referring to the name William, denoting the same person. Rule 
XI. part "2. [Pupil : parse the remainder of this sentence.] 

Seth Hamilton is a name. [Give other distinctions.] In the sub- 
jective case ; having the asserter was depending on it for sense. Rule 
L part 1. [Parse the remainder af the sentence, till you shall come to 
in.] 



PARSING. 217 

IN is a relative ; primary ; showing the relation of the fact of Hamil- 
ton's unhappiness, and the state or circumstances denoted by the substi- 
tute phrase, in being a slave to party prejudice ; which, as a phrase, is in 
the objective case, depending on the relative in. In parsing the words of 
the phrase, take each one by itself, thus, 

being is an assertive name ; in the objective case, after the relative in. 
Rule XV. 

a is an adname ; specifying ; indefinite ; belonging to slave ; accord- 
ing to rule XIII. part i. 

slave is a name ; general ; common ; (here applied to a male,) of the 
third person ; in the singular form ; in the subjective case after the as- 
sertive name being, according to rule XL part 3, [Pupil ; parse the 
remainder of the sentence. J 

Lesson XIL 

Illustration of Rule XII. 
{Let the Pupil parse all that is not parsed for him.] 

Sentences — If the wicked shall turn from his wicked- 
ness and do that which is lawful and right, he shall not die. 
Isaac : William can go to Philadelphia, purchase books, 
and return to Newburgh, as soon as you can* James : 
Seth will write, before you will* 

shall turn is an asserter ; intransitive ; in the declarative mode ; 
indefinite future tense ; in the completive form ; regular ; and depends 
for sense on the adname substitute wicked. Rule II, part I. 

do is an asserter; transitive ; in the declarative mode; in the inde- 
finite future tense ; in the completive form ; irregular ; parsed according 
to rule XII, as though the auxiliary preceded it and is connected by and 
with the asserter shall turn ; Rule XVI, and depends for sense on the ad- 
name, substitute wicked. Rule II, part. 

can, used after you, in the next sentence; is a substitute asserter ; 
standing not only as a representation of the entire asserter can go ; but 
also of the entire expression can go to Philadelphia, purchase books and 
return to New York, it is in the inferential mode : present tense, and de- 
pending for sense on the substitute you, according to rule II, part 1. 

will, used before the word you ; is an asserter ; transitive ; written 
according to rule XII ; in the declarative mode ; in the indefinite future 
tense, depending for sense on the substitute you. Rule II, part 1, 

Note. Where an auxiliary or principal asserter represents only the as- 
serter ; it is parsed as an asserter merely ; all the distinctions of the asser- 
ter being given, and applied to it. Where it is so used as to represent, 
not the asserter only, but that and other parts of speech, it is called a sub- 
stitute asserter ; and the distinction of transitive, intransitive orreceptive 
is not applied, but it is only distinguished as a substitute asserter, its 
mode and tense being told, its dependence pointed out ; and the rule for 
that dependence being given. 

19 



SI 8 PARSING, 

Lesson XIII. 
Illustration of Parts 1, 2, and 3 of Rule XIII. 

Sentence. — James is very cheerful and remarkably 
studious. Jabez ; the more care you exercise, the more 
beautiful you will form the instrument. 

James is a name, [Here give the other distinctions,] subjective case ; 
having the asserter is, depending on it for sense. Rule I, part 1. 

is is an asserter, [Here give the other distinctions,] depending for 
sense on the name James. Rule II, part 1. 

very is an adname ; qualifying; secondary; qualifying the sense 
expressed by the adname cheerjul, and belonging with that to the name 
James. Rule XIII, part 2. 

cheerful is an adname ; qualifying*; primary ; simple form ; irregu- 
lar ; belonging to the name James. Rule XIII, part 1. 

and is a connective ; simple ; connecting the adname phrases very 
cheerful, and remarkably studious. Rule XVI, part 1. 

remarkably is an adname ; qualifying ; secondary ; qualifying the 
sense expressed by the adname studious, and belonging, with that, to the 
name James. Rule XIII, part 2. 

studious is an adname ; qualifying ; primary ; in the simple form ; 
irregular ; being with remarkably, joined by and, to the adname phrase, 
or combination very cheerful and belonging with that, to the name James. 
Rule XIII, part 1. 

Jabez is a name, [Here give the other distinctions,] in the case abso- 
lute, standing according to rule V. 

the is, in a place like this, a definite specifier ; for the two the's specify 
definitely with respect to the proportion of the two events of facts, which 
are represented by the two members of this compound sentence. Each 
the refers and belongs to the member of the sentence immediately 
following it ; according to rule XIII, part 3. 

more is an adname ; specifying ; indefinite ; in the comparative form, 
belonging to the name care. Rule XIII, part 1. 

care is a name, [Here give the other distinctions,] in the objective 
case, written according to rule VI, part 1. 

you is a substitute, [Here give its other distinctions,] in the subjective 
case ; having the asserter exercise, depending on it for sense. Rule I, 
part 1. 

exercise is an asserter ; transitive ; declarative mode ; present tense ; 
regular ; completive form ; depending for sense on the substitute you. 
Rule II, part 1. 

the is a definite specifier ; referring and belonging to the sentence 
which follows it, according to rule XIII, part 3. 

mope and beautiful are modifying adnames ; the former secondary, 
and the latter, primary : as adnames, they belong to the name instrument, 
according to parts 1 and 2 of rule XIII : as modifiers, they qualify the 
member of the compound sentence in which they stand, according to 
rule XIV, parts 1 and 2. 

you is a substitute, [Here give its other distinctions,] in the subjective 
case ; having will form, depending on it for sense. Rule I, part 1. 



PARSING. - 2i& 

will form is an asserter ; transitive ; declarative mode ; indefinite 
future tense ; completive form ; regular ; depending for sense on the 
substitute you. Kule II, part I. 

the is an adname, [Here give its other distinctions,] belonging to the 
name instrument. Rule XIII, part 1. 

instrument is a name, [Here give its other distinctions,] objective 
case ; depending on the asserter will form, and written according to 
rule VI, part 1. 

Lesson XIV. 

♦ s Illustration of Parts 1 and 2 of Rule XIV. 

Sentence. — James behaves very well when he is in 
company. 

James is a name, [Here give its other distinctions,] in the subjective 
case ; having the asserter behaves, depending on it for sense. Rule I, 
part I. 

behaves is an asserter ; intransitive ; declarative mode ; present tense ; 
completive form; regular; depending for sense on the name James. 
Rule II, part 1. 

very is a modifier ; secondary ; qualifying the sense expressed by 
well, and through that the sense of the whole of the rest of the sentence. 
Rule XIV, part 2. 

well is a modifier^, primary ; qualifying the sense of the sentence in 
which it occurs. Rule XIV, part I. 

when is a modifying connective, {It is a connective, because it joins in 
a compound sentence, the two simple sentences, John behaves very well, 
and he is in company : it is a modifier, because it shows these two events 
tu be correspondent in time ; both referring to the same tilUG.] It q"*!!*' 
fies, (as a modifier,) the sense of the entire compound sentence, accord- 
ing to rule XIV, part 1. 

he is a substitute, [Here give its other distinctions,] in the subjective 
case ; having the asserter is, depending on it for sense. Rule I, part 1, 

is is an asserter ; intransitive ; in the declarative mode ; present tense ; 
irregular, and depends for sense on the substitute he. Rule II, part 1. 

in is a relative ; primary, [It shows the relation of the fact that James 
is^ to the object with which he is connected ; viz. the company.] 

company is a name, (being a collective name it admits no distinction of 
sex,) of the third person ; singular form ; regular ; objective case, writ° 
ten according to rule XV, part 1. 

Lesson XV. 

Illustration of Rule XV. 

Sentence. — James bought a knife for two dollars which 
was worth three. 

James is a name, [Here give its other distinctions,] in the subjective 
case ; having the asserter bought, depending on it for sense. Rule I, 
part 1. 



220 PARSING. 

bought is an asserter ; transitive ; declarative mode ; indefinite past 
tense ; completive form ; irregular ; depending for sense on the name 
James. Rule II, part 1. 

a is an adname ; specifying ; indefinite ; belonging to the name knife. 
Rule XIII, part 1. 

knife is a name, [Here give its other distinctions,} objective case ;■ 
denoting the object of action expressed by the asserter bought, and writ- 
ten according to rule VI, part 1. 

for is a relative ; showing the relation between the event of James 7 
buying the knife, and the object, (the money,) for, or with which he 
bought it. 

two is an adname ; specifying ; numeral ; belonging to tlW name 
dollars. Rule XIII, part 1. 

dollars is a name, [Here give the other distinctions,) objective case ; 
denoting the means for, or with which he bought the knife, and written 
according to rule XV, part I. 

which is a substitute ; connective, [It does not mark the distinction 
of sex, person, or number; in the subjective case ; having the asserter 
was, depending on it for sense. Rule I, part 1. 

was is an asserter ; intransitive ; in the declarative mode ; in the in- 
definite past tense ; irregular ; depending on the substitute ichich. Rule 
II, part 1. 

worth is a relative ; primary ; showing the relative value of the 
knife and the money ; or the relation of the knife, represented by which, 
to the object, the money, represented by the word three. 

three is a substitute ; adname ; in the plural form ; in the objective 
case, written according to rule XV, part 1. 

Lesson XVI. 
Illustration of the parts of Rule XVI. 

James and John are brothers of Julia and Maria. My 
farm and William's are adjacent to each other. Whoever 
is intelligent and virtuous, may be respected and happy. 
Whoever would enjoy retirement, and whoever would 
secure the good will of his fellow-citizens, must be intel- 
ligent and virtuous. William went to church with John, 
but returned immediately to his house, on account of sud- 
den indisposition. 

And in the first part of the first sentence joins together the names 
James and John, thereby making them sustain a common relation to the 
sentence, and act, in common, as the dependence oi the asserter are. 
Rule XVI. part 1. ■■ . ■ 

The next and joins together the two names Julia and Maria, making 
them sustain a common relation to the fore part of the sentence, and 
have a common dependence on the relative of; Julia being in the ob- 
jective case after that relative, according to rule XV. part 1, and Maria, 
connected with that name, by and, according to rule XVI, part 1 ; and 



PARSING. 221 

by that connection, made to depend on the relative of; according to 
rule XV. part 1. 

and, in the next sentence, connects the word farm, preceded by the 
substitute my, with the name William's, as a representative of the pos- 
sessive and the objective case ; causing them to sustain a common relation 
to the asserter are, and the other parts of the sentence following it. Rule 
XVI. part 1. 

The next and connects the adnames intelligent and virtuous, according 
to rule XVI. part 1, and thus represents the qualities denoted by those 
terms, as pertaining to the object denoted by the word whoever, to which 
the adname intelligent, and (by its connection with that,) the adname 
virtuous, belong, according to rule XIII. part 1. 

The next and joins the adname happy, to the asserter may be respected, 
according to rule XVI. part 2 ; representing, thereby, the quality ex- 
pressed by the adname happy, as belonging to the object denoted by the 
word whoever, on which may be respected depends. 

and, in the first part of the next sentence, connects the combinations 
whoever vjould enjoy retirement, with whoever would secure the good will 
of his fellow-citizens, and makes these two parts of the complex sen- 
tence sustain a common relation to the following part ; and causes also, 
according to rule XVI, part 1, the two connective substitutes, in the 
twofold subjective case, to act as the common dependence of the asserter 
must be, with its appendant words. 

but, in the last sentence, connects the two asserters with their appen- 
dant words ; according to rule XVI. part 1 : thereby representing that 
the man William, was the person who performed both actions. 

Lesson XVII. 

Illustration of the two pnrts of Rule XVII. 

Sentences. — Will James visit your family to-morrow ? 
" O, yes !" James will *isit his father's family to-morrow. 
" Why?" I saw Jo^n where he had bidden adieu to his 
brother. When will Henry go home ? I polished the 
marble smooth. 

O is aw exclamation ; used to express the emotion raised by the 
thou5?it of what is expressed by the sentence and the replier. It is writ- 
ten according to rule XVII. part I. 

yes is a replier ; constituting a full reply to the foregoing interroga- 
tory; affirmative: constituting an affirmative answer; written accord- 
ing to rule XVII. part 1. 

why is an interrogative ; used to interrogate respecting the cause that 
will induce the fact expressed by the foregoing sentence ; written ac-. 
cording to rule XVII. part 1. 

where is a modifying connective ; joining the two simple sentences 
constituting the compound ; and, like a modifier referring to the place 
of the two facts considered in relation to each other ; according to rule 
XVII. part 2. 

when is a modifying interrogative ; used to express the idea of time 

19* 



222 PARSING. 

ill relation to the fact expressed by the sentence, and to naake the inter- 
rogation have reference only to time : for, if I say, Will Henry go homel 
I interrogate respecting the fact, as though ignorant in relation to it : 
but if I say, When will Henry go home 1 I admit that he will go, and that I 
am aware of it ; and question only in relation to the time. Thus it is 
seen how it modifies the interrogation. It is written according to rule 
XVII. part 2. 

smooth is a modifying adname : it not only acts the part of an ad- 
iname, in showing the condition of the marble : but it acts also like a 
modifier, in referring to the means used to render the marble as it is de- 
scribed ; representing it as having undergone a change to become smooth* 
Like an adname, it belongs to the name marble, according to rule XIII. 
part I. and like a modifier it modifies the meaning of the sentence m 
which it occurs ; according to rule XIV. part 1. 

Lesson XVIH. 

Henry looked aslant the roof and saw the piece of 
money which James had lost. Seth had just gone aboard 
of the " Caledonia," when the sloop " John Adams" 
sailed ahead of the " Red Rover." He had visited all his 
friends except James, and bid adieu to all but him, before 
he sailed. His father had given him all that he wished to 
take, except a few things which could not be procured. Dick 
was devoid of regard for his widowed mother. Henry sold 
his muslin for seventy-five cents per yard. All the sol- 
diers, save three, were taken. The whole of the victorious 
army, including all the retainers and suttlers were specta- 
tors of the surrender of a once dreaded foe ; and all, saving 
a few who had suffered severely from late ravages, were 
deeply affected by the sight of such humiliation. 

Note. — In the above lesson, the words aslant, aboard of, ahead of, ex- 
cept, but, excpting, devoid of, per, save, including, and taxing, are re- 
latives. 

Lesson XIX. 

James at length yielded to his father's wishes. The 
enemy, knowing that the shock could not long be sustained, 
at last sounded a retreat. They had fought bravely, but in 
vain. 

Note. — Here at length, long, at last, bravely, and in vain, are modifiers. 
[Let the other parts of the sentence be parsed in full.] Here in full, is 
a modifier. 

William's house is three stories high. His youngest 
brother is ten years old. His highway fence is two miles 



RULES FOR TRANSPOSITION. 123 

long. How sublimely great and incomprehensible are the 
attributes of God ! How indescribably pure and sweet are 
the joys of the good ! How exahed are the views of him 
who admires, who loves, obeys, adores, and worships, his 
Creator, understanding^ ! Immeasurably blessed and 
happy is he who knows that his Maker will provide. 

Note. — In the first three sentences, the words high, old, and long, are 
primary adnames : while the words, three stories, taken together, are a 
secondary adname, qualifying the sense of high, by showing how high 
the house is : ten years and two miles, are secondaries ; qualifying, in 
the same manner, the sense of their primaries, old and long ; and belong- 
ing, with them, to the names, brother, and fence. [While'in these two 
lassons only a few worJs a*e found parsed, let the pupil parse them 
all.] 

N. B. For further information on the nature and use 
of the parts of speech, and the structure of sentences, 
see the " Synthetical Rules," and the general exposition 
of facts, in the appendix. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

GENERAL RULES FOR THE TRANSPOSITION OF SENTENCES, 
AND FOR THE SYNTHETICAL ARRANGEMENT OF SIMPLE 
SENTENCES COMPRISING INTRANSITIVE AND RECEPTIVE 
ASSERTERS.* 

Example. — John lived several years at home with his father in Utica ? 
Oneida County, and State of New York. 

Rule 1. Find, as the centre column of the sentence, the 
asserter which, taken only with a word in the subjective 

* In transposing different members of compound sentences, follow, as 
far as practicahle, the same rules that are given for the transposition of 
simple sentences. When the declarative or the inferential mode is used, 
the subjective word stands as the left hand column or pillar of the sen- 
tence. When an asserter is in the interrogative mode, the word in the 
subjective case on which it depends, follows the principal asserter, if it 
has no auxiliary : and follows the first auxiliary when the principal has 
one. So, an asserter in the commanding mode, depending on a simple 
substitute, not followed by a name referring to the same object, or by a 
connective substitute, goes before the substitute on which it depends for 
sense : though in other circumstances, the asserter, even in the com 
manding mode, must follow the word on which it depends. 



2S4 RULES FOR TRANSPOSITION. 

case, will make good sense, as far as the sense extends ; 
as, livedo in the preceding example. 

Rule 2. Find, as the left hand column or pillar, the word 
in the subjective case on which the asserter depends for 
sense ; as, John. [This constitutes a sentence ; John lived.]* 

Rule 3. Find the word or phrase that denotes the du- 
ration of the time in which the event occurs ; and let that 
stand next after the asserter ; as, the modifier, several 
years. [This constitutes the sentence thus ; John lived se- 
veral years.] 

Rule 4. Find, and place next, the appendant phrase 
which describes the place or spot where the event or fact, 
denoted by the sentence, took place ; as, at home ; re- 
membering that in every appendant phrase, you will find a 
word in the objective case. 

Rule 5. Find, in that appendant phrase, the word which 
denotes, as an object, the place or spot, (if the place is 
mentioned where the event occurred ;) as, home. 

Rule 6. Find the word, as a relative, which shows, to 
the place or spot, as the object, the immediate relation of 
the event described by the simple sentence ; making the 
relative come between the simple sentences and that word 
in the appendant phrase which denotes the place as the ob- 
ject ; as, at. [This constitutes the sentence thus; John 
lived several years at home.] 

Rule 7. When several appendant phrases succeed each 
other, let that which denotes the circumstances of the sub- 
ject of the remark come next to the one which denotes the 
spot ; as, with his father: [This constitutes the sentence, 
thus ; John lived several years at home with his father. \ 

* When the asserter is receptive, let the appendant phrase describing 
the agent (if mentioned) come first after the asserter; then that de- 
scribing the means ; (if mentioned;) and then put the other appendants 
according to the foregoing rules. 

f When an appendant phrase expresses the most important part of 
the sentence, it may be placed before the asserter ; though in ordinary 
discourse on common topics, appendant phrases stand as here directed. 
So is it with words in the objective case, depending on a transitive as- 
serter. See the Synthetical Rules, treating on the arrangement of words. 

Examples.- — " Catch ye, the thrilling sound." 

" Ye angels, catch the thrilling sound." 

" Ye, who, before the throne, 

In sacred concert join." 

"Lend, lend, your harps to man." 



RULES FOR TRANSPOSITION. 225 

Rule 8. When the circumstances of the subject of re 
mark shall have been described, let your next appendant 
be that which shall describe the particular district of the 
country in which the event occurred ; then let the state or 
country itself be described ; as, in Utica, Oneida County, 
and State of Neiv York. 

Rule 9. Let the adnames stand, as shall seem better, 
either next before or next after the words to which they 
belong, and the word in the possessive case occupy the 
place denoted by analytical rule 3. Place your connectives 
between the word or couplets which they should join to 
each other, and give your modifiers that place which the 
sense and euphony of the sentence shall require. *. 

RULES FOR TRANSPOSING SIMPLE SENTENCES, COMPRISING 
TRANSITIVE ASSERTERS. 

Example. — Cain killed Abel with a bludgeon. 

Rule 10. Find, as the centre column, the asserter? 
which, taken only with the word in the subjective ease? 
will make good sense ; as, killed. 

Rule II. Find, as the left hand column, the word in 
the subjective case on which the asserter depends for 
sense; as, Cain, [This constitutes the sentence thus;- 
Cain killed.] See the notes on the preceding page. 

Rule 12. Find, as the right hand column, the word, 
(if it is, or should be expressed,) in the objective case, which 
denotes the object of action, influence or effect expressed 
by the asserter ; as, Abel. [This constitutes the sentence 
thus ; Cain killed Abel.] 

Rule 13. Follow, in relation to appendant phrases, the 
rules given for the transposition of sentences comprising 
intransitive asserters ; remembering to have that phrase 
come first, which denotes the continued period, during' 
which the event took place; as, John worked several years 
at home with his father in Boston : and that come last of 
all, which denotes the time at which the event took place ; 
unless the sound of the words should require it to hold a 
different place; as, John went with his cousin to Phila- 
delphia last June. 

Rule 14. When an asserter in the unlimited mode de- 
pendent, refers to the word in the subjective case, which 



226 TRANSPOSITION. 

constitutes the left hand pillar of a sentence, let it occupy 
that place which the sense of the piece requires it to hold, 
and if it stands connected with appendant phrases, let them 
follow the rules first above given for the placing of ap- 
pendant phrases. 

4 Part 1. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN TRANSPOSING AND PARSING.* 

Example 1. — When in the sultry glebe I faint, 
Or on the thirsty mountains pant ; 
To fertile vales, and dewy meads, 
My weary wand'ring steps, he leads, 
Where peaceful rivers, soft and slow, 
Amid the verdant landscape, flow. 

Addison* 

Here, according to rule I, the asserter faint acts as the centre column 
of the sentence ; and the substitute I, as the left hand column, accord- 
ing to rule 2 ; while, according to rule 5, in the appendant phrase, in the 
glebe, glebe, acts as the right hand column. This makes the sentence 
stand, When I faint in the sultry glebe : the relative in, showing the re- 
lation of the event of my fainting, to the glebe, as the object. 

In the next line, pant acts as the centre column, and, being connected 
by or, depends on the substitute I, as its left hand column, on which 
faint depends ; then according to rule 5, follows the appendant on the 
thirsty mountains ; the word mountains, in that phrase, acting as the 
right hand column ; which would make the sentence stand, 

I faint in the sultry glebe, 

Or pant on the thirsty mountains. 

Either of these two lines, it is seen, would constitute, with the sub- 
stitute 7, a regular, prosaic sentence. Then follows the member of the 
compound sentence represented t by the next two lines. Of this member 
leads acts, according to rule 10, as the centre column ; while, according 
to rule XI, the substitute he, occupies the left; as, he leads. 

Then, according to rule XII, follows the word steps, denoting the obr 
jects, and having its adnames, iveary, and wand y ring, before it, according 
to rule IX ; as, 

He leads my weary wand'ring steps. 

Then, according to rule V, in the appendant phrase to fertile vales, 
stands vales, denoting the object to which the event of his leading my 
steps, is made to relate ; while, according to rule VI, the relative to, 
comes between the word denoting the object, and the sentence expres* 

* Let the pupil transpose, and then parse the examples which follow. 



TRANSPOSITION. 227 

sing the event which relates to that object. This, giving the adname 
fertile, its place, would make the sentence stand thus — 

He leads my weary wand'ring steps to fertile vales. 

Then the connective and, joining, to this expression, the phrase, dewy 
meads, {meads, by its connexion, denoting another object to which the 
event of his leading my steps, is, by the relative to, made to relate,) 
makes this sentence, with its appendants, stand thus — 

He leads my weary wand'ring steps 
To fertile vales and dewy meads. 

Then, in the last two lines, flow acts as the centre column of the sen- 
tence, according to rule 1. Rivers, preceded by its adname peaceful, acts, 
according to rule II, as the left hand column of the sentence, which would 
make the expression stand thus — peaceful rivers flow. Next, according 
to rule IX, put in the modifiers soft and slow, changed to softly and 
slowly. Next, according to rule V, find in the appendant, amid the ver- 
dant landscape, the word denoting the object to which the event of the 
rivers flowing is made to relate. That word is landscape. Then, accord- 
ing to rule VI, let the relative amid, come between the sentence express- 
ing the event and the word, (with its adnames,) which denotes the ob- 
ject, shown, by the relative, as being related to that event. The expres 
sion would then stand — 

Peaceful rivers flow softly and slowly 
Amid the verdant landscape. 

By this arrangement of the parts, it is seen that the verse above quoted 
contains three simple sentences with their respective appendants. The 
word where, acting as a modifying connective, joins the last two sen- 
tences, making the compound stand thus — 

He leads my weary wand'ring steps 

To fertile vales and dewy meads, 

Where peaceful rivers flow softly and slowly 

Amid the verdant landscape. 

Lastly, by the use of when, as a modifying connective, the other mem- 
berof the compound is added, making those parts which before constituted 
three separate sentences with their appendants, now form, by a triple 
compound; an entire whole : thus — 

When I faint in the sultry glebe, 

Or pant on the thirsty mountains, 

He leads my weary wand'ring steps 

To fertile vales and dewy meads, 

Where peaceful rivers flow softly and slowly 

Amid the verdant landscape.* 

* The member of the compound immediately succeeding when, while, 
or where, if, as in the above example, it is represented as the more pro- 



228 TRANSPOSITION. 

Example 2. — How oft the laughing brow of joy, 
A sick'ning heart conceals ! 
And, through the cloister's deep recess, 
Invading sorrow steals. 

Carter's " Pursuit of Happiness " 

Transposed. — [Rules 11, 10, and 12.] How oft the 
laughing brow of joy conceals a sick'ning heart. [Rules 
1, 2, 5, and 6,] and invading sorrow steals through the 
cloister's deep recess. 

Note. The word and, connecting these two sentences, makes the 
influence of the secondary modifier how, and the primary ojt, extend alike 
over both members of the compound. 

Example 3. — In vain, through beauty, fortune, wit, 
The fugitive we trace ; 

Id, 

Transposed.— [Rules 9, 11, 10, 12, 5, and 6.J In vain 
we trace the fugitive, through beauty, fortune, or wit; Or, 
We trace the fugitive in vain, through beauty, fortune, or 
wit. 

Example 4. — Perhaps the joy, to these, denied, 
The heart, in friendship, finds : 

Id. 

Transposed.— [Rules 9, 11, 10, 5, 6, 12, and 14] Per- 
haps the heart finds in friendship the joy denied to these. 

Note. In this sentence, it is requisite, for perspicuity, that we should 
vary a little from rule XII $ for, otherwise we should say, Perhaps the 
heart finds the joy, in friendship, denied to these , which might indicate, 
that the friendship, not the joy, is denied to the qualities, fortune, beauty, 
and wit. 

Example 5. — But chief, my fear, the dangers moved, 
That virtue's path enclose: 
My heart the wise pursuit approved ; 
But O, what toils oppose ! 

Merrick's " Trials of Virtue.' 1 

minent part of the compound, must precede the other member to which 
it is attached : otherwise, it must succeed that member : as, I saw James 
when he returned. 



LESSONS IN TRANSPOSITION. 229 

Transposed. — But the dangers that enclose virtue's 
path, chiefly moved my fear : Or, Chiefly, the dangers 
that enclose virtue's path, moved my fears. My heart 
approved the wise pursuit, but Q, what toils oppose ! 

Example 6. — " Who noble ends, by noble means, obtains. 
Or, failing, smiles in exile or in chains, 
Like good Aurelius, let him reign ; or bleed 
Like Socrates ; that man is great indeed." 

Transposed. — The man is great indeed, who obtains 
noble ends by noble means ; or, failing, smiles in exile or 
in chains : Let him reign like good Aurelius ; or bleed like 
Socrates. 

Note. Let is here used in the commanding mode absolute. Toparse 
it, as by grammarians of the old school it always has been parsed, "Do 
thou let him to reign or bleed," would be the perfection of non-sense. The 
sense is the same, whether I say, " let him reign or bleed," or " whether 
he reigns," or " should reign, or bleed:" 

Example 7. 

" Soft is the strain when zephyr gently blows, 

And the smooth stream, in smoother numbers, flows ; 

But when loud surges lash the sounding shore, 

The hoarse, rough verse should like the torrent, roar." 

Transposed. — When Zephyr gently blows, (or blows 
gently,) the strain is soft, and the smooth stream flows in 
smoother numbers : but when loud surges lash the sound- 
ing shore, the hoarse, rough verse, should roar like the 
torrent. 

Example 8. 

" Devoid of fear, the fawns around thee play ; 

Emblem of peace, the dove before thee flies; 
No blood-stained traces mark thy blameless way; 

Beneath thy feet, no hapless insect dies. 
Come lovely nymph, and range the mead with me, 

To spring the partridge from the guileful foe ; 
From secret snares, the struggling bird, to free ; 

And stop the hand upraised to give the blow." 

Elegy to Pity, 
20 



230 LESSONS IN TRANSPOSITION. 

Transposed. 

The fawns play around thee, devoid of fear : 
The dove, emblem of peace, flies before thee : 
No blond-stained traces mark thy blameless way V 
No hapless insect dies beneath thy feet. 
Lovely nymph, come, and ran r e the mead with me,. 
To spring the partridge from the guileful foe; 
To free the struggling bird from secret snares; 
And stop the hand upraised to give the blow* 

Example 9. 

See lofty Lebanon his head advance ; 

See nodding forests, on the mountains, dance ; 

See spicy clouds, from lowly Saron, rise, 

And Carmel's flow'ry top perfume the skies. 

Hark ! a glad voice the lonely desert cheers ; 

" Prepare the way, a God, a God appears." 

" A God, a God," the vocal hills reply ; 

The rocks proclaim the approaching Deity. — Pope* 

Transposed. 

See lofty Lebanon advance his head. 
See nodding forests dance on the mountains t 
See spicy clouds rise from lowly Saron ; 
And Carmel's llow'ry top perfume the skies. 
Hark ! a glad voice ( 4fc Prepare the way, a God* 
A God, appears,") cheers the lonely desert. 
The vocal hills reply, " a God, a God !" 
The rocks proclaim the approaching Deity.. 

Example 10. 

Immortal Peter ! first of monarchs !* he 
His stubborn country tamed, her rocks, her fens, 
Her floods, her sea, her ill-submitting sons ; 
And while the fierce barbarian, he subdued, 
To more exalted soul, he raised the man. 

Thomson* 

Transposed. — Immortal Peter ! first of monarchs ! he 
* Emperor of Russia, 



LESSONS IN TRANSPOSITION. 231 

tamed his stubborn country, her rocks, her fens, her floods, 
her seas, and her ili-submitting sons; and while he sub- 
dued the fierce barbarian, he raised the man to a more ex- 
alted soul. 

Example 11. 

As on the sea-beat shore, Britannia* sat, 
Of her degenerate sons, the faded fame, 
Deep in her anxious heart, revolving sad; 
Bare was her throbbing bosom to the gale 
That, hoarse and hollow, from the bleak surge blew. 

Thomson. 

Transposed. — As Britannia sat on the sea-beaten shore, 
sadZy revolving in her anxious heart the faded fame of her 
degenerate sons, her throbbing bosom was bare to the gale, 
that, hoarse, and hollow, blew from the bleak surge. 

Example 12. 

But there was one, in folly farther gone, 

With eye awry, incurable, and wild, 

The laughing stock of devils and of men, 

By his guardian angel given up ; 

The miser, who, with dust inanimate, 

Held wedded intercourse. 

Ill-guided wretch ! 

Thou mightst have seen him at the midnight hour 

When good men slept,_and jpJirhaiT:' 

^rtfTvigilance and fasting, worn, to skin and bone, 

And wrapped in most debasing rags, 

Thou mightst have seen him bending o'er his heaps, 

And holding strange communion with his gold. 

Pollok. 

Transposed. — But there was one, farther gone in folly, 
and given up, by his guardian angel, as the laughing stock 
of devils and of men ; the miser, who, with eye awry, in- 
curable, and wild-, held wedded intercourse with inanimate 
dust. Ill-guided wretch ! At the midnight hour, when 
good men slept, and in light-winged dreams, ascended up 

* The ancient name pf Britain, was Britannia. 



232 LESSONS IN TRANSPOSITION. 

to God, thou mightst have seen him in a wasted hall, and 9 
worn by vigilance and fasting, to skin and bone, wrapped 
in most debasing rags, bending o'er his heaps, and holding 
strange communion with his gold. 

Note. The sentence, " thou mightst have seen him," repeated as in 
the quotation, is altogether superfluous : and although it may be parsed, 
being a perfect sentence, in itself, yet, as it is causelessly repeated, & 
should, as in the transposition, be expunged — thrown out 

Example 13*. 

Plum'd conceit, himself surveyings 
Folly, with her shadow, playing, 
Purse-proud, elbowing insolence, 
Bloated empiric, puff'd pretence, 
Noise r that through a trumpet, speaks:^ 
Laugh ter r in loud peals, that breaks^, 
Intrusion with a fopling's face, 
(Ignorant of time and place,} 
Sparks of fire r dissension, blowing ;. 
Ductile, court-bred flattery, bowing;; 
Restraint's stiff neck, grimace' Ieer & 
Squint-eyed censure's artful sneer, 
Ambition's buskins, steep'd in blood. 
Fly thy presence, Solitude ! — Grainger. 

Transposed. — Solitude ! Plumed conceit, surveying 
bimself; o folly, playing with her shadow; purse-proud^ 
noise, that speaks througtra^Aufifppiric^ puffed pretence ; 
in loud peals ; intrusion, with a fopling's face ; (igribr$fit\fi 
time and place,) dissension, blowing sparks of fire ; ductile^ 
court-bred flattery, bowing ; restraint's stiffneck; grimace 9 
leer ; squint-eyed censure's artful sneer ; and ambition's 
buskins, steep'd in blood ; fly thy presence. 

Example 14. 

God never made an independent man r 
'Twould jar the concord of his general plan* 
" See every part of that stupendous whole 
" Whose body, nature is, and God, the soul ;'* 
To one great end, the general good, conspire^ 
From matter, brute, to man, to seraph, fire. 

Grainger. 



LESSONS IN TRANSPOSITION. 233 

Transposed. — God never made an independent man : 
It would jar the concord of his general plan. Of that 
stupendous whole, whose body is nature, and whose soul 
is God, see every part, from matter and brute, to man, to 
seraph, and fire, conspire to one great end, the general 
good. 

Example 15. 
" I no smiling pleasures knew ; 
I no gay delights could view : 
Joyless sojourner, was I, 
Only born to weep and die." 

English Reader* 

Transposed. — I knew no smiling pleasures. I could 
view no gay delights. I was a joyless sojourner, only born 
to weep and die : Or, I, a joyless sojourner, was only 
born to weep and die. 

Part 2. 

EXERCISES IN WHICH THE WORDS ARE NUMBERED, AS 
THEY SHOULD STAND IN PROSE— THESE, AND THE LES- 

' SONS WHJCH FOLLOW, THE PUPIL CAN WRITE ON A 
SLATE, FOR EXERCISING HIS MIND IN TRAi\SPOSITiON.* 

Example 1. 

6 7 8 12 3 4 5 

By foreign hands, thy dying eyes were closed: 
6 7 8 4 1 2 3 5 

By foreign hands, [were] thy decent limbs composed : 
6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 

By foreign hands thy humble grave [was] adorned : 
4 5 12 3689 7 

By strangers, [it was] honored, and by strangers, mourned. 

Example 2. 

18 19 20 21 22 23 32 33 

Of the mail-cover'd barons, who, proudly, to battle, 
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 

Led their vassals, from Europe, to Palestine's plain ; 

1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 6 

The escutchen and shield, which, with every blast, rattle, 

* Let the learner remember, that the words printed in italic are wrong, 
and he must supply their places with right words. 
20* 



234 LESSONS IN TRANSPOSITION. 

10 12 13 14 15 11 16 17 

Are the only sad vestiges, now, that remain. 

Byron 1 s Newstead Abbey* 

Example 3. 

4 5 6 7 8 9 3 

On Marston, with Rupert, 'gainst traitors, contending, 
1 2 27 31 32 33 28 29 30 

Four brothers enrich'd, with their blood, the bleak field : 

10 14 15 16 17 18 19 12 13 

[And] For the rights of their monarch, their country, de- 
ll 
fending ; 
20 21 23 24 25 26 22 

Till death their attachment to royalty, seal'd. 

Id. 
Example 4. 

4 5 6 1 2 3 

In yonder grave, your druid lies ; 

7 12 11 8 9 10 

Where slowly winds the stealing wave; 

12 3 4 5 7 6 

The year's best sweets shall duteous [ly] rise, 
8 9 10 11 12 13 

To deck the poet's sylvan grave. 

Collins, on the death of Thomson. 

Example 5. 

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 

In yon deep bed of whisp'ring reeds, 

12 3 4 5 6 7 

His airy harp shall now be laid ; 

15 16 17 18 20 21 19 

That he, whose heart, in sorrow, bleeds, 

22 23 27 28 24 25 26 
May love, through life, the pleasing shade. 

Id. 
Example 6* 

1 2 3 4 5 6 II 21 7 8 9 

What could I do ? what succor ? [had I or] what resource ? 

14 15 16 17 18 12 13 

With pious sacrilege, a grave I stole ; 

23 24 25 21 22 19 20 

With impious piety, that grave I wronged. 

Young. 



LESSONS IN TRANSPOSITION, 235 

Example 7. 

51 52 53 54 55 56 

Beneath the lumber of demolish'd worlds, 

43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 

Deep in the rubbish of the general wreck, 

29 30 31 32 33 34 

Swept, ignominious, [ly] to the common mass 
35 36 37 38 39 40 

Of matter never dignified with life; 

42 41 1 2 3 4 5 6 

Here lie proud rationals ; the sons of heaven ; 

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 

The lords of earth ; the property of worms ; 

15 16 17 18 19 20 

Beings of yesterday, and no to-morrow; 

21 22 23 24 25 27 28 26 

Who liv'd in terror, and in pangs expired* 

Young o 

Example 8. 

12 3 4 5 6 7 8 

Death treads in pleasure's footsteps round the world ;• 

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 

When pleasure treads the path which reason shuns t 

17 22 23 18 19 20 21 

When, against Reason, Riot shuts the door; 

24 25 26 27 28 29 30 
And gayety supplies the place of sense ; 

31 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 
Then, foremost, at the banquet, and the ball, 

32 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 
Death leads the dance, and stamps the deadly die r 

48 49 50 53 54 55 51 52 

Nor ever fails the midnight bowl to crown. 

3 2 4 5 6 7 

Gaily carousing,* to his gay compeers, 

9 1 8 10 11 12 ' 13 14 15 

Inly he laughs, to see them laugh at him, 
16 17 19 18 20 21 22 23 24 

As [though] absent far ; and when the revel burns,. 

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 
When Fear is banish'd, and triumphant Thought, 

32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 

Calling for all the joys beneath the moon, 

* Drinking or pledging the cup, 



236 LESSONS IN TRANSPOSITION. 

44 45 41 42 43 46 47 48 49 
Against him turns the key, and bids him sup 

50 51 52 53 54 55 56 

With their* progenitors ; he drops his mask, 

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 

Frowns out at full : they start, despair, expire. 

Young, 

Example 9, 
9 10 1 2 3 4 5 

Thy life ; may all the tenderest care 
6 7 8 

Of Providence defend 

11 12 13 14 19 20 

And [may] delegated angels 'round [thee] 

16 17 18 15 

Their guardian wings extend. 

18 9 10 11 

When through creation's vast expanse, 

2 3 4 5 6 7 

The last dread thunders [shall] roll : 

12 13 14 15 16 17 

Untune the concord of the spheres; 

18 19 20 21 22 

And shake the rising soul ; 

25 23 24 27 28 29 

Unmov'd, may'st thou, the final storm 
30 31 32 26 

Of jarring worlds, survey, 

33 34 35 36 37 38 '. 

That ushers in the glorious morn, 
39 40 41 

Of everlasting day. 

Mrs. Carter. 

Example 10. 

1 2 3 4 5 

Friendship, thou soft propitious power ; 

6 7 8 9 10 11 

Sweet regent of the social hour; 

15 14 12 13 16 17 18 19 

Sublime [are] thy joys ; nor [are they] understood, 
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 



But by the virtuous, and the good. 

12 3 4 5 6, 
Cabal and Riot take thy name ; 
* Bacchanalians. 



LESSONS IN TRANSPOSITION. 237 

7 8&9 10 11 12 13 
But His a false, affected claim : 

19 20 14 d5 16 17 18 

In heaven, if love and friendship dwell ; 

21 22 23 24 25 

Can they associate with hell ? 

Cowper, 

Example 11. 

12 3 5 6 4 

Ten thousand beauties 'round me throng : 
fc 9 10 9 7 8 11 

What beauties, say, ye nymphs, belong 
12 13 14 15 

To the distemper'd soul? 
12 3 4 5 6 7 

I see the lawn of hideous die ; 

8 9 10 11 12 
The tow'ring elms nod misery ; 

16 17 13 14 15 

With groans, the waters roll. 

Greville* 

Example 12. 

12 1 2 3 4 

Awake then, (thy Philander calls, awake I) 

34 56 78 9 10 

Thou who shalt wake when the creation sleeps ; 

11 17 18 19 12 13 14 15 16 

When, like a taper, all these suns [shall] expire ; 
_ 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 
'"29 "''""^JikeJhim of Gaza, in his wrath, 
Plucking the pillars that support tne w35iu ? 
38 39 40 41 36 37 

In nature's ample ruins, lies entomb'd ; 
41 43 44 45 46 

And midnight, universal midnight, reigns. 

Young, 

Example 13. 

1 2 3 6 7 4 5 

Author of good, to thee I turn i 
8 9 10 

Thy ever-wakeful eye 



238 LESSONS IN TRANSPOSITION. 

11 12 18 20 21 13 14 
Alone can all my wants discern, [and] 

15 16 17 18 19 
Thy hand alone [can] supply 

12 3 4 6 7 5 8 

Oh ! let thy fear, within me dwell, [and] 

9 10 12 13 ll 

Thy love, my footsteps guide : 

12 3 5 6 4 
That love, shall uther love expel : 

12 3 4 5 

That fear, all fear besides. 

Merrick* 

Example 14. 
12 3 4 5 6 7 

When my breast labors with oppressive care ; 

8 13 14 15 12 9 10 11 

And o'er my cheek, descends the falling tear ; 

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 

While all my warring passions are at strife ; 

24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 
Oh let me listen to the words of life ! 

6 5 12 3 4 

Raptures deep-felt, his doctrine did impart ; 

7 8 9 10 13 15 11 12 13 

And thus he raised, from earth, the drooping heart. 

Thomson* 

Example 15. 

36 37 38 39 40 41 42 

Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 

43 44 45 46 . 47 1M ^ al la '&e 

(OkJ^'-sV ' 51 52 53 55 56 57 58 
Brought death into the world, and all our woe ; 

59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 

With loss of Eden, 'till one greater man [shall] 
68 69 70 71 72 73 78 79 80 

Restore us, and regain the blissful seat ; [for us] 

35 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 

Sing, heavenly Muse, that, on the secret top 

8 9 10 II 12 13 14 
Of Oreb and of Sinai, didst inspire 

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 

That shepherd, who first taughtst the chosen seed, 






LESSONS IN TRANSPOSITION, 239 

29 30 31 23 24 25 26 27 

In the beginning, how the heavens and earth 

28 32 33 34 
Rose out of chaos. 

Milton. 

Example 16. 
2 1 3 4 5 6 

######* Thou, O spirit ! that dost prefer, 

12 13 !4 7 7 11 9 10 

Before all temples, th' upright heart and pure, 

15 16 17 18 19 20 23 24 25 

Instruct me, (for thou knovv'st ; thou, from the first 

21 22 26 27 28 29 30 

Was present; and with mighty wings outspread, 

33 31 32 34 34 36 37 

Dove-like, sat'st brooding on the vast abyss, 

38 39 40 41 43 44 45 46 47 

And mad'st it pregnant) what in me is dark, 

42 48 52 53 54 49 50 51 

Illume ; [and] what is low, raise and support; 

55 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 

That, to the height of this great argument, 
56 57 65 66 67 

I may assert* eternal providence, 

68 " 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 
And justify the ways of God to man. 

Milton. 

Example 17. 
5 6 7 8 12 3 4 

In faith and hope, the world will disagree ; 

9 10 11 12 13 14 

But all mankind's concern is, charity : 

1 8 9 10 2 3 4 567 

All must be false that thwarts this one great end ; 

11 12 18 19 29 21 13 14 17 15 16 

And all [must be] of God that bless mankind or mend 

14 5 6 7 3 2 

Man, like the generous vine, supported lives : 

1 2 3 45678 9 10 

The strenghth [which] he gains is from th' embrace [that 
11 12 



he gives. 



* Vindicate. 



240 LESSONS IN TRANSPOSITION, 

7 8 9 10 1 2 3 6 

On their own axes as the planets run, 

9 10 4 5 11 12 14 14 15 

And make, at once* their circle round the sun ; 
16 17 18 ' 19 20 21 22 

So two consistent motions actf the soul ; 
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 

And one regards itself, and one the whole : 
4 12 3 5 6 7 8 

Thus, God and Nature link'd the general frame, 

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 

And bade self-love, and social, be the same. 

Pope. 

Example 18. 

12 3 4 5 6 7 

Oh gaudy summer veil, thy blushing head : 

4312567 8 9 10 

Dull is thy sun, and all thy beauties [are] dead : 

7 8 9 L0 11 12 13 14 

From thy short nights, and noisy, mirthful day, 

12 3 5 4 6 

My kindling thoughts, disdainful, [ly] turn away. 

1 2 4 5 6 3 

Majestic Winter with his floods appears ; 

7 27 28 29 24 25 26 23 

And, o'er the world, his awful terrors rears: 

10 11 12 13 14 15 9 8 

From north to south, his train dispreading slow, [ly] 

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 

Blue frost, bleak rain, and fleecy-footed snow. 

Mir a to Thomson. 

Example 19. 

4 5 6 12 3 

His mighty power, ye thunders, praise, 

7 10 11 12 8 9 

As through the heavens, ye roll; 

13 17 18 19 14 15 16 

And his great name, ye lightnings, blaze, 

20 21 22 33 

To the far-distant pole, 

12 7 8 9 10 

Ye seas, in your eternal roar, 

* At the same time. f Actuate. 



LESSONS IN TRANSPOSITION. 241 

4 5 6 3 

His sacred praise proclaim ; 

11 12 13 14 16 

While the inactive sluggish shore 

16 17 18 19 
Re-ecohes to thcsame. 

Example 20. 
12 3 4 5 6 

O ye, yon high, harmonious spheres, 

8 9 10 7 11 

Your powerful mover sing ; [and] 
16 17 20 21 22 " 18 19 

To him, your circling course, that steers*, 

13 14 15 12 

ITour tuneful praises bring. 

1 "2 3 4 5 

Ungrateful mortals, catch the sounds, 

6 7 8 9 10 

And in your numerous lays, 
16 17 18 19 20 21 

To all the listening world around, 

12 13 14 15 11 
The God of nature praise* Thomson. 

Example 21. 

1 2 345 6 89 7 

They taught that God and nature our attention claim, 

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 

That, nature is the glass, reflecting God; 
17 31 32 33 30 29 18 19 

As by the sea, reflected is the sun, 
HO 22 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 ~ 

Too glorious to be gazed on in his sphere; 

34 35 37 36 38 29 40 

That, [the] mind immortal loves immortal aims : 

41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 

That [the] boundless mind affects* a boundless space : 

49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 

That, vast surveys, and the sublime of things, 

58 59 57 60 61 62 63 

The soul assimilate, and make her great ; 

64 65 66 72 73 74 75 76 

That, therefore, heaven her glories, as a fund 
77 78 67 68 69 70 71 

Of inspiration, thus spreads out, to man. Young, 

* Aspires to, 

2i 



242 LESSONS IN TRANSPOSITION, 

PART VI. 

Lesson 1. 
Beneath this verdant hillock, lies 
Demar, the wealthy and the wise, 
His heirs, that he might safely rest, 
Have put his carcass in a chest ; 
The very chest, in which, they say, 
His other self, his money lay : 
And if his heirs continue kind 
To that dear self, he left behind, 
I dare believe, that four in five, 
Will think his better half alive. 

Epitaph on a Miser. 

. Lesson 2. 

Oh ! for a pencil dipt in living light, 

To paint the agonies that Jesus bore ! 
Oh ! for the long-lost harp of Jesse's might, 

To hymn the Savior's praise from shore to shore- 
While seraph hosts the lofty paean pour ; 

And heaven, enraptured, lists the loud acclaim ; 
May a frail mortal dare the theme explore? 
May he, to human ears, his weak song frame 1 
Oh ! may he dare to sing Messiah's glorious name ? 

H. K. White. 

Lesson 3. 

The purest treasure mortal times afford 

Is spotless reputation ; that away, 

Men are but gilded loam, or painted clay. 

To gild refined gold ; to paint the lily ; 

Upon the rose to throw perfume ; 

To smooth the ice ; or add another hue 

Unto the rainbow, or with taper light, 

To seek improvement on meridian place, 

Is wasteful and ridiculous excess. 

Then who would not most covet to be good, 

Active, and useful, careless of the rest. 

Shakspeare. 

Lesson 4. 
See the philanthropist, all good and wise, 



LESSONS IN TRANSPOSITION. 243 

Each sordid wish, and selfish aim despise ! 

Wide as the earth, his vast desire extends, 

As Sol to all, on all, his radiance sends : 

44 Statesman, yet friend to truth, of soul sincere, 

In action faithful, and in honor clear ; 

Who broke no promise, served no private end, 

Who gained no title, and who lost no friend. 

Ennobled by himself, by all approved 

And praised unenvied, though by all beloved." 

Pope, with some additions and alterations* 

Lesson 5. 
When Leagued Oppression pour'd to Northern wars, 
Her whiskered pandours, and her fierce hussars : 
Waved her dread standard to the breeze of morn ; 
Peal'd her loud drum, and twang'd her trumpet horn ; 
Tumultuous horror brooded o'er the van ; 
Presaging wrath to Poland, and to man. 

Lesson 6. 

Warsaw's last champion, from her heights, survey'd, 
Wide o'er the field, a waste of ruin laid. 
Oh Heaven ! he cried, my bleeding country save ! 
Is there no hand on high to shield the brave ? 
Yet, though destruction sweeps those lovely plains ; 
Rise ; fellow men ! Our Country yet remains ! 
By that dread name, we wave the sword on high, 
And swear for her to live, with her to die. 

Lesson 7. 

He spoke, and on the rampart heights, arrayM 
His trusty warriors, few, but undismay'd. 
Firm paced and slow, a horrid front they form ; 
Still as the breeze, yet dreadful as the storm : 
Low, murm'ring sounds, along their banners fly? 
44 Revenge or death !" the watchword and reply. 
Then peal'd their notes omnipotent to charm ; 
And the loud tocsin toll'd their last alarm. 

Lesson 8. 
In vain, alas ! in vain, ye gallant few, 
From rank to rank, your volley'd thunder flew t 



244 LESSONS IN TRANSPOSITION 

Oh ! bloodiest picture in the book of time ! 

Sarmatia* fell, unwept, without a crime: 

Dropp'd from her nerveless grasp, the shattered spear ; 

Closed her bright eye, and curb'd her high career; 

Hope, for a season, bade the world farewell \ 

And Freedom shrieked, as Kosciusko fell I 

Lesson 9. 

The sun went down, nor ceased the carnage there ; 
Tumultuous horror shook the midnight air : 
On Prague's proud arch, the fires of ruin glow ; 
His blood-dy'd waters murm'ring far below. 
The storm prevails, the ramparts yield away ; 
Bursts the wild cry of horror and dismay r 
Hark ! as the smould'ring- piles with thunder fall? 
A thousand shrieks, for hopeless mercy call r 
Earth shook ; red meteors flashed along the sky ; 
And conscious nature shudder 9 d at the cry- - 

Lesson 10. 

Oh righteous Heaven ! Ere Freedom found a grave, 
Why slept thy sword, omnipotent to save ? 
Where was thine arm, O Vengeance ! where the rod, 
That smote the foes of Zion and of God ? 
That crush 9 d proud Ammon, when his iron car 
Was yoked in wrath, and thunder 9 d from afar ? 
Where was the storm that slumber 9 d till the host 
Of blood-stained Pharaoh left their guilty coast ; 
Then made the deep in wild commotion flow ; 
And heaved an ocean on their march below ? 

Lesson 11. 

Departed spirits of the mighty dead ! 
Ye that at Marathon, and Leuctra, bled ? 
Friends of the world ! restore your swords to man ; 
Fight in his sacred cause ; and lead the van : 
Yet for Samartia 9 s tears of blood, atone ; 
And make her arm puissant as your own : 
Oh ! once again, to Freedom's cause return, 
Thou patriot Tell, thou Bruce of Bannockburn ! 

* Sarmatia was anciently the name of Poland. 



LESSONS IN TRANSPOSITION. 245 

Lesson 12. 

Yes! Thy proud lords, unpitied land, shall see 
That man hath yet a soul, and dares be free. 
A little while, along thy sadden'd plains, 
The starless night of desolation reigns : 
Truth shall restore the light by nature given ; 
And, like Prometheus, bring the fire from heaven : 
Prone to the dust, Oppression shall be hurl'd ; 
Her name, her nature, wither'd from the world. 

Campbell 

Lesson 13. 

Nor is the hour of lonely walk forgot, 

In the wide desert, where the view was large. 

Pleasant were many scenes, but most to me 

The solitude of vast extent, untouch'd 

By hand of art, where nature sowed, herself, 

And reap'd her crops ; whose garments were the clouds ; 

Whose minstrels, brooks ; whose lamps, the moon and 

Whose organ-choir, the voice of many waters ; [stars ; 

Whose banquets, morning dews ; whose heroes, storms ; 

Whose warriors, mighty winds ; whose lovers, flowers; 

Whose orators, the thunderbolts of God ; 

Whose palaces, the everlasting hills ; 

Whose ceiling, heaven's unfathomable blue; 

And from whose rocky turrets battled high, 

Prospect immense, spread out on all sides round ; 

Lost, now, between the welkin and the main ; 

Now, wall'd with hills, that slept above the storm. 

Pollok. 

Lesson 14. 

When coldness wraps this suffering clay r 

Ah, whither strays the immortal mind? 
It cannot die, it "cannot stay, 

But leaves its darken'd dust behind. 
Then, unembodied, doth it trace 

Each shining planet's heavenly way ? 
Or fill, at once, the realms of space, 

A thing of eyes, that all survey 1 
21* 



246 LESSONS IN TRANSPOSITION. 

Lesson 15. 

Eternal, boundless, undecay'd* 

A thought unseen, but seeing all ; 
All, all, in earth or heaven, display'd, 

Shall it survey, shall it recall. 
Each fainter trace that memory holds. 

So darkly of departed years* 
In one broad glance, the soul beholds* 

And all that was, at once appears. 

Lesson 16, 

Before Creation peopled earth, 

Its eye shall roll, through chaos, back, 
And where the farthest heavens had birth, 

The spirit trace its rising track : 
And where the future mars or makes. 

Its glance, dilate, o'er all shall be ; 
While sun is quenched, or system breaks 

Fix'd in its own eternity. 

Byron r on the souL 

Lesson 17. 

O Thou t whose balance does the mountains weigh ; 
"Whose will, the wild, tumultuous seas obey ; 
Whose breath can turn those watery worlds to flame : 
That flame to tempest, and that tempest, tame ; 
Earth's meanest son, all trembling, prostrate 'falls, 
And on the bounty of thy goodness calls. 

Lesson 18. 

O may I pant for thee, in each desire ! 
And with strong faith foment the holy fire ! 
Stretch out my soul in hope, and grasp the prize, 
Which in eternity's deep bosom lies ! 
At the great day of recompense, behold, 
Devoid of fear, the fatal book unfold ! 
Then, wafted upward, to the blissful seat, 
From age to age my grateful song repeat ; 
My Light, ray Life, my God, my Savior see, 
And rival angels in the praise of Thee ! 

Young-. 



lessons in transposition. 247 

Lesson 19. 

Good man was he, humble, and kind, forgiving, meek* 
Easy to be entreated, gracious, mild ; 
And, with all patience and affection, taught, 
Rebuked, persuaded, solaced, counsell'd, warn'd, 
In fervent style and manner. Needy, poor, 
And dying men, like music, heard his feet 
Approach their beds ; and guilty wretches took 
New hope in his prayers, and wept, and smiled, 
And blcss'd him, as they died forgiven : and all 
Saw, in his face, contentment ; in his life, 
The path to glory and perpetual joy. 

Lesson 20. 

Deep-learn'd in the philosophy of heaven,. 

He search'd the cause out, of both good and ill, 

Profoundly calculating their effects, 

Far past the bounds of Time ; and balancing, 

In the arithmetic of future things, 

The loss and profit of the soul, to all 

Eternity. A skilful workman he, 

In God's great moral vineyard : what to prune 

With cautious hand, he knew ; what to uproot, 

What were mere weeds, and what celestial plants,, 

Which had unfading vigor in them; knew, 

Nor knew alone, but watch'd them night and day,, 

And rear'd and nourish'd them, till fit to be 

Transplanted to the Paradise above. 

Lesson 21. 

Oh ! who can speak his praise ! great, humble man ! 

He, in the current of destruction, stood, 

And warn'd the sinner of his wo ; led oa 

ImmanuePs members in the evil day ;. 

And, with the everlasting arms, embraced, 

Himself, around, stood in the dreadful front 

Of battle high ; and warr'd victoriously 

With Death and Hell. And now was come his rest^ 

His triumph day.. Illustrious, like a sun* 

In that assembly, he, shining from far, 

Most excellent in glory, stood assured ; 



248 SYNTHETICAL RULE3. 

Waiting the promised crown, the promised throne* 
The welcome and approval of his Lord. 

Pollok. 

Lesson 22, 

Father of Light and Life ! thou Good Supreme ! 
O teach me what is good ! teach me thyself! 
Save me from folly, vanity, and vice, 
From every low pursuit ! and feed my soul 
With knowledge, conscious peace, and virtue pure ; 
Sacred, substantial, never-fading bliss ! 
O make me like thyself, in active goodness wise, 
And then above, translate, with life and glory, crown'd. 

Thomson. 

SYNTHETICAL RULES, 

USED ONLY AS GUIDES IN COMPOSITION, OR THE FORMA- 
TION OF SENTENCES. 

Rule T. Part 1. Mark well and distinctly, the ideas 
which you would express : mark the relation which you 
wish to represent as existing between the ideas, when taken 
in connexion : choose, with care, such words to express 
the ideas, as will express those, and no others ; their rela- 
tion to, dependence on, and connexion with, each other ; 
and then arrange and combine those words in such a man- 
ner as will express the ideas in all their relations, connex- 
ions, and dependences, without doing violence to the in- 
dividual meaning of the words. 

Examples. 

Sitting at my table, I remark ; I am going to get to Philadelphia, be- 
fore John starts to-morrow, for the South. I am going, is perfectly ab- 
surd, as here used ; for while I am sitting at my table, stationary, I can- 
not be travelling. To get, means to obtain or acquire. This must be 
absurd ; for to talk of obtaining to Philadelphia, as an object, would be 
perfect nonsense. Before John starts for the South This cannot be 
correct ; for starts, referring to a particular event, means is starling, which 
must mean now ; while the event is represented as an occurrence of to- 
morrow. The person who should hear this remark, would, if acquainted 
with our vulgarisms, know well enough what would be meant, in spite of 
the words used, not by them ; for, give the words their individual mean- 
ing, and the sentence would stand, I am (now) going, to acquire, to 



SYNTHETICAL RULES. 249 

Philadelphia, before John is (nou,) starting to-morrow for the South, 
Perfect nonsense ! The meaning is, I intend to arrive at (or in} Phila- 
delphia, before John shall start, to-morrow, for the South. 

William's house is building. To build means to construct something : 
and as the asserter is building refers to, and depends on, the name house, 
to denote the thing that is doing the act which is building represents, 
the sentence must mean, (taking the words according to their own im- 
port,) that the house, itself, is constructing some edifice. 

Walter's coat is making. Maria's bonnet is repairing. Henry's grain 
is harvesting. This grammar is printing. Clark's Commentaries 
and Henry's Expository are now binding. The Black River Canal is 
digging. The New-York and Erie Rail Road is making. The piers at 
Oswego are finishing. Great efforts are making to extend the mental, 
moral, and physical advantages of the Temperance Reformation. 

Names, Substitutes, and Asserters. 

Rule II. A word in the subjective should stand before 
its dependent asserter, except when the latter is in the In- 
terrogative mode, or in the Commanding; and even this 
mode, when it depends on a name of the second person ; 
as, Henry ; study. 

Note 1. The asserter in the Commanding mode follows its subjective 
word, when that word is a substitute of the second person, with a name 
given after it to identify the object : or when a connective substitute in- 
tervenes between the asserter and its subjective word ; as, 
" Ye princes, rulers, all adore ; 
Ye kings, praise Him who makes your power 
An image of his own." 
" Thou, who knowest the hearts of all men, show which of these per- 
sons thou hast chosen." 

Note 2. When the asserter in the commanding mode is used to ex- 
press desire, choice, or consent, and joined to a word of the third person 
as its dependence, it may come before, or after it ; as, 

M This day be bread and peace my lot." 

The light of truth alone be mine. 

Note 3. An asserter in the interrogative mode always has its first aux- 
iliary (when it has auxiliaries), or the principal, before the word in the 
subjective case ; whether the asserter is used to express interrogation or 
desire ; as, May John go home \ " hot est thou me, more than these do V 

O may I pant for thee, in each desire ; 

And with strong faith foment the holy fire ? 

Note 4. The interrogative mode may be used in an affirmative sen- 
tence ; when, for the sake of emphasis in relation to any idea, an ad- 
name or modifier, or the word in the objective case depending on the as- 
serter, or an appendant phrase, is placed at the beginning of a sentence ; 
as, Great is the Lord. Rarely, indeed, can a spotless patriot be found : 
and when the member of the sentence is preceded by therefore, wherefore^ 



250 SYNTHETICAL RULES. 

thus, then, there, or by us or so as parts of the combination, so, as, or as, 
so. [See page 173.] Examples. " Therefore is the kingdom likened to 
a man that built his house upon [on] a rock." "As are thy people, so 
are my people." 

Note. — The declarative or inferential mode of an asserter may be used 
in an interrogative sentence, when its subjective word is an interrogative 
substitute or has an interrogative adname joined to it, thus : " Who is the 
Lord? that I should obey him." Who can instruct the Almighty, ox fly 
from his parental and kingly sway 1 What man is so base as to wish 
injury [to his fellow-creatures, whom he should regard as his partners in 
the joys and griefs of life ; having, with himself, the same origin, tenden- 
cy, and destination'? 

Rule III. Part 1. A connective substitute in the simple 
objective case, must follow the relative or precede the as- 
serter on which it depends ; as, John is the man to whom I 
spoke. Henry has bought the books that I owned. Maria : 
ivhom did you meet. To whom did you send the letter ? 

Part 2. A name, or adname substitute, in the simple ob- 
jective case, follows the relative on which it depends : and 
the transitive asserter ; except when it is preceded by a 
connective or interrogative substitute in the possessive case 
depending on it; or, when it is preceded by the as a defi- 
nite specifier, [see page 202] or when the word in the ob- 
jective case, is the chief object concerning which it is de- 
signed to make the remark. 

ExAMPLLE 1. J spoke to John, who had visited hie brother. I gave 
one apple to Henry, and three to John. 2. T told William that he might 
take whichever book he chose. 3. The more attention you bestow, now, 
upon your studies, the greater enjoyment you will derive from them. 
4. " One thing do I desire ; and that will I seek." 

Rule IV. When a substitute or name in the subjective 
case, stands at the head of a sentence, and has a name, or 
several names given in addition to, and explanatory of it, 
or in the subjective after its asserter; the first one deter- 
mines the form of the asserter; as, 

" Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, 

Lies in three words — health, peace, and competence.*' 

The bliss of earth, of toil, the recompense, 
Is health unbroken, peace, and competence. 
" John's whole properly, three farms, two stores, and flour mill, was 
sold at public auction." 

My friends, my only hope, are gone, 
My enemies, my dread, are here, 



SYNTHETICAL RULES. 251 

Rule V. Singular names and substitutes, not preceded 
by each, every, or not, when denoting different objects, and 
connected by and, require succeeding names, substitutes, 
and asserters, referring to them, to be in the plural form ; 
as, James and John are happy, because they are virtuous 
men: Henry and Maria are cousins: except when the 
asserter comes between the first subjective word, and those 
with which and connects it ; in which case the first as- 
serter, whether singular or plural, gives form to the de- 
pendent asserter ; as, 

" Forth in the pleasing spring thy beauty walks, 

Thy tenderness and love :" 

"Ten thousand voices cheer the day, 

And one the live-long night.*" 

Note. — Two or more substitute phrases connected by and, follow this 
rule ; as, " To be wise in our own eyes, to be wise in the opinion of the 
world, and to be wise in the sight of our Creator, are three things so 
very different as rarely to coincide." 

Rule VI. Singular names, though connected by and, 
if preceded by each, every, or not, require succeeding 
names, substitutes, and asserters, referring to them, to be 
in the singular form ; as, every officer, soldier, and servant, 
was taken : except when these singulaiizing words are 
joined to others, in which case the twofold influence of these 
and the others require the asserter to be in the plural form ; 
as, Every man, woman, and private soldier, and the gene- 
ral and his staff, were taken. Every fowl and creeping 
thing, and all the beasts of the field, except those remain- 
ing with Noah, were destroyed. 

Rule VII. Distributive specifying adnames, (whether 
used as adnames or adname substitutes,) require succeeding 
names, substitutes, and asserters, referring to them, or the 
names to which they belong, to be in the singular form ; 
as, Every child was spared. Either man is adequate to 
the accomplishment of the task he has begun. 

Rule VIIL Singular names and substitutes, connected 

* Two or more names, denoting the same object, even though connected 
by and, require the singular form of the substitute and the asserter ; as, The 
father of his country is no more. The warrior, the statesman, and philanthro- 
pist, has gone to his eternal rest. His work is done. His fame rests unrivalled 
above the reach of envy. His glory is consummated. The stars of his coun- 
try encircle his name. 



252 SYNTHETICAL RULES. 

by or, or preceded by neither^ and connected by nor, re« 
quire succeeding names, substitutes, and asserters referring 
to them, to be in the singular form ; as, Richard or Edward 
lives at home. Neither Henry nor Seth is dishonest. 

Rule IX. Never connect by or, or nor, two or more 
names or substitutes that have the same asserter depending 
on them for sense, if when taken separately, they require 
different forms of the asserters. Examples. " Neither 
you nor I am concerned. Either he or thou wast there. 
Either they or he is faulty." 

These examples are as erroneous as it would be to say, " Neither you 
am concerned, nor am I." " Either he wast there, or thou wast. " Ei- 
ther they is faulty, or he is." The sentences should stand thus — 
" Neither of us is concerned," or, " neither are you concerned, nor am I " 
" Either he was there, or thou wast." " Either they are faulty, or he is." 
They are, however, in all their impropriety, written according to the 
principles of Goold Brown's grammar /. and the theories of most of the 
former writers. 

Rule X. A collective name, conveying the idea of all 
taken, or considered as one, or referring generally to the 
mass or collection, not particularly to the individuals com- 
posing it, requires succeeding names, substitutes, and as- 
serters referring to it, to be in the singular form ; as, The 
meeting was disturbed, by one of its members. The Par- 
liament is dissolved. Congress has ended its session. 
The army was a powerful force, although it was composed 
of persons of all countries, colors, ranks, and conditions. 

Rule XI. A collective name, conveying the idea of all 
taken, considered, or acting separately; or referring par- 
ticularly to the individuals composing the mass or collec- 
tion, instead of the mass or collection itself, as a whole, 
requires succeeding names, substitutes, and asserters, re- 
ferring to it, to be in theplural form ; as, My people do 
not consider their ways. The yeomanry of England are 
its chief strength. The peasantry of Poland are but slaves 
to the nobility, who regard them as the appurtenances of 
the land which they till. 

Note. — Whenever the plural form of the name denoting one of the 
collection, can well be used to represent the individuals constituting the 
collection, it should be used ; as, The members of the council were divided 
in their sentiment — instead of the council were. The members of the 



SYNTHETICAL RtJLE3» 253 

church, were at variance with each other- — instead of the church were at 
variance with each other, or the church was at variance with itself. 

Rule XII. Whenever an asserter is to be used be- 
tween two words in the subjective case, the one that de- 
signates the person or thing that is referred to, must pre- 
cede the asserter ; and that which shows what the object or 
person is, or which marks the business, character, or pro- 
fession, must follow the asserter. Howard was a philan- 
thropist. " The wages of sin, is death ; but the gift of 
God, is eternal life." Patrick Henry was the orator of 
nature. Wirt was Attorney General. 

Note. — The philosophy of this rule is obvious ; for the sense is ex- 
pressed much better by the arrangement in the above examples, than it 
would have been by saying — A philanthropist was Howard. Attorney 
General was Wirt, &c. &c. 

Rule XIII. The possessive form of a word may be 
used in the twofold case, and be preceded by the relative 
of denoting possession, when the relative has, before it, a 
word so used, as to represent a part of something; but 
otherwise it must not be used ; as, that horse was one of 
John's. These associates are some of Henry's. The 
troops of the king's, or the king of England's, would be 
incorrect; for then no words used, could indicate that a 
part is meant. 

Rule XIV. A substitute requires the same form of 
the asserter, as the name for which it stands; as I ivho 
command you, am the man. I am the man who commands 
you. Who lives for himself alone ? 

Note. — With respect to the use of asserters, be particular in remem- 
bering, that if you expect the answer to be a plural name or substitute, 
or several singular ones connected by and, you must give, after the in- 
terrogative substitute, the plural form of the asserter ; as, Who 
were with you 1 (John and James.) but that when you expect 
a singular name or substitute for your answer, you must use the singu- 
lar form of the asserter ; as, Who is the man 1 Which is the person 
whom you met 1 

Rule XV. Neither art, nor any form of the asserter 
peculiar to thou, should ever be made to depend on which : 
for, whenever even an inanimate thing is (by personifica- 
tion) so represented, as to require the form of the asserter 

22 



254 SYNTHETICAL RULES. 

which follows thou, it must be denoted by thou, or the con- 
nective %oho, or that : as, 

Thou mountain that didst shake with fear ! 

Thou sea that rolledst back thy waves ! 

Note. — Who, standing for a name of the second person, requires the 
same form of the asserter depending on it, as the substitute thou ; as, 
" Our Father who art in Heaven." [Many persons, even some clergy- 
men, are so great sticklers for " ancient usage," or so blind to the pu- 
rity and elegance of English diction, as still to speak that, '■ Our Father 
which art." Some of them seem to consider it little less than sacrilege, 
to attempt improving, not the sentiment itself, as they imagine, but the 
English mode of expressing it, that the force and dignity of the senti- 
ment may not, to our weak minds, be made to dwindle, by its being irre- 
verently expressed.] 

Rule XVI. A connective substitute must have the next 
succeeding asserter depending on it for sense, when no 
other word in the subjective case comes between that and 
the asserter ; as, James, who wrote the letter, was a good 
penman. 

Rule XVII. Interrogative substitutes require the 
names and substitutes constituting the answer, (whether 
in a simple or the twofold case) to correspond in form with 
the case of the interrogatives ; as, Who gave you that 
book? John* Whose book is that? Angeline's. Of 
whom did you speak ? Of her. Whom did you see when 
you went to visit Richard ? I saw him. 

Rule XVIII. Singular and plural names require, re- 
spectively, that their substitutes should agree with them in 
form, and the representation of objects with respect to sex ; 
John was at home when I saw him. My friends left their 
goods with orders to have them forwarded to Buffalo. 

Rule XIX. Part 1. Names and adname substitutes may 
be used in addition to, and explanatory of simple substi- 
tutes; as, 

Ye princes, rulers, all adore, 

Praise Him, ye kings, who makes your power 

An image of his own. Ogilvie. 

"Ye good distressed, ye noble few, 
Who here unbending stand. Thomson. 

Part 2. A simple substitute, unless it is one of the em- 
fhatics, should not, in the same sentence, be used after the 



SYNTHETICAL RULES. 255 

name denoting the same object, and be made to sustain the 
same relation to the sentence; as, James ; hand thou tome 
your book, or thy book. William ; go thou to home, or 
go you to home.* 

Note. — The language in such examples is unpardonably anti-English 
diction, yet it is grammatically correct ! according to former writers. 
It should be, James ; hand me your book. William ; go home. 
The following language is correct : O God ; make me a clean 
heart, and renew a right spirit within me. Save me, O God ; for 
thy name's sake. OLord ; rebuke me not in thine indignation, neither 
chasten me in thy displeasure. Have mercy on me, O Lord ; for I am 
weak. O Lord ; heal me. Hear my prayer, O God ; and hide not thyself 
from me. And they stoned Stephen, who calling on God, cried, saying, 
Lord Jesus ; receive me spirit ; Lord ; lay not this sin to their charge. O 
Lord God of Israel ; I beseech thee tell thy servant. My son ; despise not 
the chastening of the Lord, nor be weary of his correction. — Bible. 

Any person can see that weakness and awkwardness of style would be 
introduced, by the use of thou, or you, after each of the asserters. 

Rule XX. A substitute phrase, in the subjective or 
objective case, having in it an assertive name, in the 
form of an asserter in the unlimited mode independent, re- 
quires the name or substitute on which the assertive name 
depends, to be in the possessive case ; as, John's having 
sold his father's farm was the cause of the old man's re- 
moval. He talked of John's having purchased a paradise 
in the West. Henrietta was delighted with Julia's work- 
ing lace so very well. 

Note. — It is obvious that irregularity, as well as a change of sense, 
would be produced by my saying^ John, having sold his father's farm, 
was the cause, &c. This would not indicate that the sale of the farm 
by John, was the cause of the old man's removal ; but that John, having 
sold the farm, was, himself, independently of the sale, the cause of the 
removal. So, to say, Henrietta was delighted with Julia, working lace so 
well, would indicate that Henrietta was delighted with Julia's person, 
especially with her when thus employed ; while, as the language stands, 
it would indicate only that Henrietta was delighted with Julia's perform- 
ance, not at all referring to her person, as a person merely. 

Names and Substitutes. 

Rule XXI. Part 1. It as a substitute, may stand for 
the dependence of an asserter that has after it a word, a 
substitute phrase or sentence, meaning the thing or fact 
for which it stands. 

* See the emphatic substitutes, page 61. 



256 SYNTHETICAL RULES. 

Examples, 

It is our privilege and duty to be kind and affectionate in our behavior 
towards all. It is for usefulness and happiness that man is constituted 
as he is. It is folly, madness ; it is downright insult and presumption, 
to ask the aid of Heaven, without seeking, as far as possible, to use the 
means with which we are endowed for aiding ourselves. It is vain that 
we seek happiness in any thing but innocence and duty. It is useless 
to attempt proving that any thing is right, which God and nature have 
pronounced is wrong-. 

Part 2. It may be used in the place of any common 
name not denoting a human being ; as, I saw the dove after 
John had killed it: and in referring to a person, when it 
is used in the subjective case before an asserter that has in 
the singular form and subjective after it, the general or 
particular name of the object ; as, it was John that I met 
in Utica :. to represent a combination of causes producing 
a certain result ; as, it rains ; if thunders ; it freezes ; it 
thaws : and to represent an infant ; as, it died. 

Rule XXII. Part 1. Place the connective substitute 
next the name, other substitute, or combination of words, 
for which it stands. Examples. William has broken his 
arm, whom you met yesterday. The man has sold his 
farm, who was formerly your partner in . trade. 
Corrected. William, ivhom you met yesterday, has broken 
his arm. The man who was formerly your partner in 
trade, has sold his farm. 

Part 2. Never make a connective substitute stand for 
a name or substitute in the possessive case ; as, I rode the 
general's horse, whose son presented, with the horse, the 
compliments of his father. I live in William's house, 
whose friendship for me has never abated. Henry is his 
father's third son, whose affection for his offspring was 
never doubted. 

Note. These sentences should stand — I rode the horse of the general, 
whose son,. &c. I live in the house of William, whose friendship, &c. 
Henry is the third son of his father, whose affection, &c. 

Part 3. In using a connective substitute, in the twofold 
case, take the firm that corresponds with the form of the 
simple substitute that might represent the first of the rela- 
tions that the twofold case represents ; as I will give the 
reward to whomsoever will apprehend the rogue. Who- 
ever will apprehend the rogue shall receive the reward.. 



SYNTHETICAL RULES. 25t 

Note. The sense of the substitute in first example might be repre- 
sented by the words him who ; as, I will give the reward to him who will 
apprehend the rogue. Then as the word him, in the objective form , is the 
simple substitute that would represent the first relation, represented in 
the example by whomsoever, it is seen that the objective form whomsoever 
is correctly used. The simple substitute representing the first relation 
now represented by whoever in the next example, would be he ; as, He 
who will apprehend the rogue shall receive the reward. Whoever, is 
then properly used — he being the subjective form in the simple substitute, 
and whoever, of the connective substitute. Yet, to say / will give the 
reward to whoever will do it, would be the same in construction ; as I will 
give the reward to he who will do it : and, to say, whomsoever will ap- 
prehend the rogue, shall receive the reward, would, in construction, be the 
same as, him shall receive the reward, who will apprehend, <fec. 

Rule XXIII. Part 1. In using several names connected 
by and that are to represent the possessors of common pro- 
perty, affix the sign of the possessive case only to the last; 
as, John, James, and William's farm, is the one which their 
father left them. Walter and Sethis horse was sold for 
seventy-five dollars. 

Note. This rule rests on the principle on which what is called affirm 
or the name of an association has its possessive case made ; as, I may say, 
Jay Hathaway S? Company' 'a- Store. The term, Jay Hathaway $ Com- 
pany, being the appellation by which that firm or association is known, 
and the affixing of the apostrophic s, the means of denoting that I would 
represent that term in the possessive case. 

Part 2. Whenever these names denote the possessors 
of separate property, instead of a common stock of things, 
the sign of the possessive case should be affixed to each ; 
as, Seth's, Richard's, and Edmund's farms, are those which 
their fathers left them. 

Note. Names connected by or when they denote the possessors, must 
always have after them the sign of the possessive case ; as, William's 
or John's horse was stolen. 

Part 3. Names or substitutes in the possessive or the 
objective case, denoting several persons who are posses- 
sors, should, even when referring to similar members or 
things of different objects, have the plural of the word re- 
presenting the several members or properties, unless they 
are classed as one stock or association ; as, The hearts 
of Seth and William were much affected. Their having 
lost their fathers, was a sad catastrophe to both. 

32* 



258 SYNTHETICAL RULES. 

Note. Where something pertaining to two or more is taken in the 
abstract, or in representing a common emotion, the singular form should 
be used to represent it ; as, their health was impaired by vigilance and 
sorrow ; yet, their grief was not like that of those who mourn without 
hope. 

AsSERTERS^ 

Rule XXIV. In describing an event that continues its- 
occurrence with only some occasional intermission, use 
the present tense ; as, The epicure eats and drinks, revels 
and sleeps, with no higher wish, than merely to gratify his 
animal appetites. "William may sell his carriage, may 
give it away, or keep it. 

Rule XXV. In describing a past remark that repre- 
sented a fact or error based on a principle which is 
always the same> use the present tense ; as, Sam. Parker 
pretended that the earth is a huge animal, that breathes 
once every day, and thereby causes the ebbing and flow- 
ing of the tides 1 1 The Psalmist represents that man's 
days are as a hand's breath ; and that man, in his best es- 
tate, is altogether vanity. 

Rule XXVI. In describing, not existence or posses- 
sion merely, but an event that you would represent em- 
phatically as occurring at the present time, use the con- 
tinuative form of the asserter describing the event; as, 
John is writing the contract as you proposed to have it. 
Henry is finishing the portrait which he began day-before- 
y ester day. 

Note. When the continuative form and indefinite tense of a transi- 
tive asserter is used as an assertive name, with an objective word follow- 
ing it in the same sentence, either omit the adname the, before the as- 
sertive name, and the relative of after it, or use them both : thus, The 
making more brick with less materials was indeed a heavy burden on the 
Israelites : or, Making of more brick with less materials, &c, should 
stand, Making more brick, &c. ; or, The making o/more brick, &c. 

Rule XXVII. In describing a past events with or with- 
out reference to another represented as occurring at the 
same time, use the indefinite past tense ; as, The world 
was made. The creation was finished. John sat by me 
while I was writing the letter which he intended to take 
to the office. 

Rule XXVIII. Part 1. In describing two past events 
that occurred in succession, and which have no reference 
to present time, use the prior past tense, to mark the first* 



SYNTHETICAL RULES. 259 

and the indefinite past, to denote the other ; as, 
Morgan had crossed the river when Cornwallis appeared. 
William had written before. John returned.* 

Part 2. In describing two future events that are to occur 
in succession, use the prior future tense, to represent the 
first, and the indefinite future, or the present of the 
inferential, to express the other ; as, I shall have visited 
you before John will return from the West. James will 
have ceased to breathe before I can arrive at his father's 
house. 

Note. In describing a past fact, as the cause why another fact re- 
ferred to, did or did not occur, we may use the prior past tense of the 
declarative mode to express the cause, and the prior past of the inferen- 
tial to express the contingency owing to, or originating in, that cause. 
If John had not been absent, I should have called at his store. If John 
had been sick, while I was at Syracuse, I should have known it. 

Rule XXIX. In describing a past event that occurred 
in a period of time which is represented as being continued 
to the present and not separated from it, use the prior pre- 
sent tense; as, William has sold his farm. John has re- 
turned from the West. 

Rule XXX. In describing two past events that occurred 
in succession, one of which is represented as a recent oc- 
currence, let the first be denoted by the indefinite past 
tense, and the other, by the prior present ; as, James sold 
me his farm, but he has re-purchased it. Seth traveled 
eastward last summer, but he has returned. 

Rule XXXI. In describing an event, which, by a past 
conversation or remark, was represented, then, as some- 
thing, either future, or contingent and future, use the in- 
definite tense of the inferential mode, not the indefinite 
past of the declarative mode ; as, James told me yester- 
day, that if he should see (not saw) John this morning, he 
would hand him my note of yesterday morning. The ge- 

* A violation of this rule is seen on page 163, where is the example, 
«' John wept bitterly for the wrong which he did to William." This was 
correctly written, " had dene to William ;" but the compositor, by acci- 
dent, omitted the auxiliary had; and the proof-reader, in the absence of 
the author r seeing done used in the sentence, without an auxiliary — -and 
not thinking of the principle of the above rule, put in did, instead of the 
auxiliary had, which should have been put in before done, to make the as- 
sezter had done. 



260 SYNTHETICAL RULES. 

neral told me, last evening, that, if it should rain (not 
rained) this morning, I must not expect him to call on me* 
William said, if he should die (not died) he hoped that there 
would be no parade concerning his useless corpse. [Few 
rules are violated more frequently than this,] 

Rule XXXII. In describing an event or fact, which, by 
a past remark, was represented as then present, use the 
indefinite past tense ; as, William said if -he was mistaken, 
he should be willing to re-consider the matter at any time. 
[Should be, is here used according to rule XXXI, above.] 

Rule XXXIII. In expressing a present desire for a 
change of state or condition, let the asserter denoting the 
existence in the state, or condition desired, be in the inde- 
finite past tense ; as, I wish I was at home, or, that I was 
at home. I wish men were more intent on improving 
their own minds and morals, than on seeking and report- 
ing the faults of their neighbors. 

Note. The application of the indefinite past tense to present time is 
from the necessity of the case ; inasmuch as we have no present tense 
to represent the idea here represented by the indefinite past tense. As 
the first example stands, it represents, clearly, both my absence from 
home and my desire to be at home noio. What would be thought of the 
literary taste of a man who should say, I wish that I am at home ? 

Rule XXXIV. In using, after if, a sentence referring 
to present time, and showing one fact as the cause of an- 
other, use the indefinite past tense with or without the 
modifier not ; as, I would go home if it did not rain. James 
would be at school if he was not sick. If Dick was not 
an intemperate man, he could support his family. The 
man would be respected if he was intelligent and virtuous. 
I would pay my debts if I was able. John would go 
home if his father was able to accompany him. 

Note. In all these, and similar examples, the writer admits, as fact, 
the reverse of what the sentence would mean, with the if taken 
out. In the first example, I admit that it rains now. In the next, I ad- 
mit that James is sick ; and the other facts are admitted in the same 
manner by the means used for expressing them. 

Rule XXXV. In using the inferential mode to pre- 
mise, conditionally, and without reference to time, one 
obligation as the grounds for inferring another, use 
ought to as an auxiliary, instead of should; as, 



SYNTHETICAL RULES. 261 

If James ought to assist his father, so also should John ; 
fur they received equal parts of the estate. 

Note. This mode of expressing the obligation, is better than saying 
— if John should assist his father, &c., for, by the last expression, no 
person would think, from the first member of the compound, that I re- 
ferred to any thing but contingency ; obligation not being thought of, 
till the other member, so also should John, should.be expressed. 

Ri>le XXXVI. ' Shall, as auxiliary, is to be used, in a 
simple sentence, in dependence on a word of the first per- 
son, merely to express a fact contemplated as future, with- 
out obligation or promise, as I shall have gone to Utica 
before you will return from Hartford. We shall visit 
Philadelphia. It is to be used in dependence on a word of 
the second or third person, to denote, on the part of the 
speaker or writer, a purpose of compulsion, to be exercised 
on the object denoted by that word, or an authoritative 
direction to him ; as, " Ye shall make no graven image." 
44 Thou shalt speak to the children of Israel." 

Rule XXXVII. Will, is to be used in a simple sen- 
tence, in dependence on a word of the first person, to de- 
note a purpose of future action ; or a promise to do some- 
thing contemplated as future ; as, I will go home. We 
will have finished the work for Henry, by ten o'clock. 

It is used in dependence on a word of the second or 
third person, to denote a fact contemplated merelyas some- 
thing that is to occur hereafter; as, You will injure your 
health by too intense study. You will have started for 
Philadelphia, before I shall return to New York. In com- 
pound sentences, these auxiliaries follow in their sense, 
the contingencies expressed by the sentences in which 
they occur. In expressing future contingencies of a di- 
rect and probable character, use shall or will, or both as 
auxiliaries ; or one of them and can. In expressing those 
of a more general character, having less of probability 
connected with them, use should or would, or both ; or 
one of them and could. 

Examples. 

Henry: if John shall meet me, I will hand him your note. If an assassin 
should attack me, and I could not escape, I would play my part. Do not 
blend in the same expression the first named auxiliaries with the others ; 
as, I will proceed to Utica if I should not meet John. If I should be met 
by an assassin I will play my part. This is a very clumsy and incorrect 
mode of speaking the sentiment. 



262 synthetical rules. 

Adnames. 
Rule XXXVIII. Never use the superlative form of an ad- 
name, in application to an object which does not belong 
to the same class as the other objects, with which it it com- 
pared ; as, 

Adam, the fairest man, 

Of men, since born, his sons ; 

The fairest of her daughters, Eve. 

Milton. 

Note. This would indicate that Adam was one of his own sons, and 
the fairest one of them; and Eve was one of her own daughters, and, in 
beauty, was peerless among her sisters, who were her own daughters ! 

Corrected (in sense.) — Adam, a fairer man, than men 
since born, his sons — fairer than any of her daughters, 
Eve. 

Rule XXXIX. When we would show in the fullest light, 
the quality or matter to be denoted by an adname or mo- 
difier, let the adname or modifier stand first in a sen- 
tence ; as, Great is Diana of the Ephesians. Great is the 
Lord, and greatly to be praised. Rarely, indeed, can a 
spotless patriot be found. 

Rule XL. In using two or more qualifying adnames, 
to express the quality of one object denoted by a name, 
avoid the use of a specifying adname between the adnames ; 
as, James gave me the sour, juicy, and beautiful apple. Wil- 
liam bought a young, bay, very large, and well disciplined 
horse. 

* Note. — It will be seen, that by interposing the, or a, each adname 
before the last, would represent a separate apple or horse ; making the 
sense be, that James gave me three apples ; a sour apple, a juicy apple, 
and a beautiful apple : that William bought four horses ; viz. a young 
horse, a bay horse, a very large horse, and a well disciplined horse. In 
the use of qualifying adnames, be careful to join them to the names de- 
noting the things whose qualities they represent ; as, instead of saying, 
Have you any red children's shoes, or black ladies' gloves, which must 
mean shoes for red children, and gloves for black ladies ; we should say, 
have you red shoes for children, black gloves for ladies, &c. See Ana- 
lytical Rule XIII. 

Rule XLT. In representing several single objects of 
different qualities, numbers, or orders, let the name be used 
in the singular form, and either a, an, or the, or a simple 



SYNTHETICAL RULES. 263 

substitute in the possessive case, be placed between the 
other adnames. 

Examples. 

A literary, a scientific, a wealthy, and a poor man, were assembled in 
one room. The statesman, the hero, the ignorant, the vicious, the wise, 
the great, and the good man, suffer together in times of general distress. 
Joram's second and his third daughter, were at church. The third and 
the fourth son of William, were at home when he died. 

Note. The violation of this rule, unavoidably leads to absurdity. 
Examples. Joram's second and third daughters ; which must mean, if it 
means anything, his second daughters and third daughters. "Sing the 
first and second verses:" which, if it means anything, must represent the 
first verses and the second verses. Where there are several adnames in 
succession used in this manner, the singularizing words, such as a, the, 
and his, &c, need be placed only before the first and the last ; as, the Jiflh, 
sixth, seventh, and the eighth verse. 

Rule XLII. When we would refer to a particular 
object or class of objects, or the property, or quality of a 
particular object, we should use a definite specifying ad- 
name, which, taken with other words, denotes particular- 
ity ; as, the house which John sold was almost new. " 'Tis 
here the folly of the wise."* 

Rule XLIII. When we would refer indefinitely to 
an object or class of objects, we should use an indefinite 
specifying adname ; as, I met a man. Any person can do 
that work. William gave me an apple. 

Note. The superlative form, preceded by a, expresses only emphasis 
with respect to quality ; as, He is a most excellent man. The superla- 
tive in sense is sometimes elegantly expressed by the use of the compa- 
rative form, preceded by a, and followed by a negative modifier ; as, a 
more honorable man than Henry, never lived. 

Rule XLIV. A modifying adname, must have the 
form of a qualifying adname ; as, John polished the marble 
smooth, (not smoothly,) William held the door open. 
<fc Charity lays the rough paths of peevish nature even." 
The road was made straight. 

* The should never belong to, or be placed next before a connective 
substitute ; as, the which. It should be used in calling for anything near 
you, unless there are several things of the same class ; in which case, if 
we wish for one and not the other, we should use that or this, these or 
those. See page 143, 

Examples. Will you hand me the bread \ Will you pass the water ? 
not that bread, or that water, unless you have a preference. 



264 SYNONYMS. 

Rule XLV. Place the appendant phrases next the 
words denoting the objects which the appendants are in* 
tended to describe ; and where a series of sentences, 
words, or appendants, describing successive facts or- prin- 
ciples, occur, place them in the order in which the facts 
occur, or the principles are deduced. 

EXAMPLES. 

The city, built entirely of granite, contains sixty thou- 
sand inhabitants i not, as in a late Parisian paper, the 
sentence stood, " The city contains sixty thousand inha- 
bitants, made entirely of granite! which would represent 
the inhabitants as a hard set, truly. John is intelligent 
and virtuous ; not virtuous and intelligent ; for, as there 
cannot be virtue without intelligence, the latter term 
should stand first ; as describing a principle, without whose 
pre-existenee virtue cannot be. " My father died, and 
made his will" a certain man said to his attorney; not 
thinking, that according to the common principles of pro- 
priety, he should have said, "My father made his will, 
and died. 

N. B. All the." Lessons in Correction, according to the Rules of Syntax," 
that can be inserted, will be found in the Appendix ; and in these lessons, the 
pupil should be carefully examined. 

SYNONYMS. 
Few words of our language are exactly synonymous ; 
iew, therefore, could properly be ranked under the above 
caption ; yet as many words of very common use, are ap- 
plied by careless speakers and writers, as though they 
were synonymous, the above title will not be deemed inap- 
propriate : inasmuch as the following words, marked as 
different in their applications, are used as though they had 
but one meaning. A hundredth part of these words can- 
not, for want of space, be noticed ; yet a small list may be 
of some service in calling the attention of the learner to a 
nicer discrimination in the use of words. 

Astonish — Surprise — Amaze — Terror-strike — Con- 
found — Wonder. That which is vast, and, at first, or 
for ever, incomprehensible, astonishes us. That which oc- 
curs suddenly, when not expected, surprises us. That 
which astonishes or surprises us, may, through the effect 
of the astonishment or surprise, amaze us, or produce in 



SYNONYMS. 265 

onr minds a bewildered state. When lost in amazement, 
or when under the effect of astonishment or surprise, the 
rapid approach of what threatens immediate and imminent 
danger, strikes us with terror, in such a manner, as utterly 
to confound us, or produce such a rush and confusion of 
ideas in our minds, as wholly to unfit us for deliberation 
or action. We may wonder at what is neither great, sur- 
prising, amazing, nor terrific, if it is, or seems inexplicable. 
The princes of Europe, were astonished, at the grandeur 
and boldness of Napoleon's designs. They were sur- 
prised, while he was yet at a distance, at learning, with 
what facility and despatch, his loftiest schemes were ex- 
ecuted. While in amazement from the contemplation of 
the intelligence, they were terror-struck, by hearing, that 
he, with overwhelming forces, was already within their 
dominions, or at their gates. They were so completely 
confounded by such intelligence that they knew not what 
to do, or which way to fly. When the storms of war had 
swept over their territories, and subsided, and they were 
left to contemplate the unsubstantial nature of human 
affairs, they wondered at me genius and character of the 
man. We wonder at the growth of a flower, or a blade of 
grass. 

Violate-Transgress-Infringe-Break-Interrtjpt- 
Annul-Keteal. To violate, is to use violent means in 
acting contrary to right, or express stipulation ; as, by as- 
saulting or injuring a man's person ; taking, by violence, 
his goods ; or injuring his reputation, which he has been 
careful all his life time to acquire and to guard, we violate 
his rights. We may violate a treaty or contract, by doing 
that which, by the terms of the treaty or contract, we are 
bound not to do. To transgress, is to go beyond the 
bounds prescribed by the law or ordinance of some power 
or constituted authority. We may transgress a law, by 
disobeying its precepts; but we can never, by the simple 
act of disobedience, either violate or break, a law. To in- 
fringe, is to do wrong, either by action or neglect ; and 
make that wrong interfere with some law or custom. In- 
fringement, is a less forcible term, than either violation or 
transgression. We may infringe the rules of society, by 
neglecting the common civilities of life, or by casting re- 
proach upon the wholesome usages of community. To 

23 



&66 SYNONYMS. 

break, means, even when used figuratively, to render inopera* 
tive, by force, or other means, that which was constituted 
for a certain purpose. We may, by indiscretion, or other 
means, break the bonds of friendship. We may, by inter- 
ference, break a contract between two or more individuals, 
by placing it beyond the power of one of the parties, to 
comply with the stipulations of the contract. Thus, if two 
neighbors, contract that one of them shall procure my 
horse for the other : I, by refusing to dispose of the animal, 
on any terms, may break the contract made by the two 
parties. To interrupt, is not, to break ; but merely to 
suspend for a time, the operation of what was before in 
exercise. We may, for a time, interrupt the social inter- 
course of friends, by some sudden and painful intelligence : 
and yet, neither violate any right, transgress any law ; 
break any regulation, contract or agreement ; or the bonds 
of friendship. To repeal, is to recall, take back, or undo, 
by the same power that made it, some law or ordinance ; 
as the legislature repeals a law previously made : yet, this 
repeal is neither a violation," transgression, infringement, 
nor assundering ; nor is it merely an interruption : (for a 
law, when repealed, is not merely suspended for a time,) 
it is repealing it as it was made, and by the same power 
that made it. 

To annul, is to render void and inoperative, fcy the exer- 
cise of a higher power, that which was before effective or 
in force, as a rule or law. The constitution of the United 
States, which is an article, drawn by delegates, chosen by 
the legislatures of the different States, and afterward as- 
sented to by the people, annuls every law or ordinance 
that is made in contravention to it. The constitution does 
not, however, violate the law which it annuls : for the con- 
stitution was made first, and paramount to all existing laws, 
or any that should, or could, subsequently, by a less power, 
be enacted. It does not transgress the law which it an- 
nuls : for the constitution is every way superior to that 
law. It does not infringe the law which it annuls ; for, as 
the constitution was made by the highest power of govern- 
ment, no law of a less or inferior power, can be regarded 
as infringed by the exercise of a law of a higher power, 
whose supremacy was, by the makers of the other law, 
fully known and acknowledged, It cannot break the law ; 



SYNONYMS. 267 

for, by the exercise of the power of the constitution, that 
law is annulled, in the very act of its being made. The 
constitution does not interrupt the exercise of the law, 
which it annuls ; for it precludes the exercise of it at all ; 
prevents its operation, from the moment of its enactment. 
It does not repeal the law that it annuls, for that cannot be 
repealed, which has never been a law ; and as the annulling 
power of the constitution prevented that enactment's be- 
coming a law, it cannot be repealed, for it was never a law. 
It annuls that which would otherwise have been a law, 
while it is being made ; by rendering void, its very enact- 
ment. 

Dislike — Aversion — Hatred — Abhorrence — De- 
testation. Dislike, indicates one degree beyond a per- 
fect indifference towards a person or thing. It supposes 
some known cause as the basis of the feeling called dislike. 
Aversion, indicates the next step beyond dislike. It pro- 
duces in the mind a wish to avoid or turn from the object 
of our aversion. [So the word itself denotes.] Hatred, is 
a stronger feeling than either dislike or aversion. It pro- 
duces an unpleasant emotion whenever acting on the mind. 
Abhorrence, is a step beyond hatred ; while Detestation is 
the highest exercise of that emotion which began in simple 
dislike. We may dislike some trait or quality of a warm- 
hearted associate, whom, notwithstanding, we love ; and 
whose society we court and enjoy. We have an aversion 
towards the heartless, six-penny, griping miser. The prin- 
ciple of aversion is inactive, when we are absent, or ima- 
gine ourselves absent from its object. We hate the idle 
converse, and the table-bearing, officious propensity of an 
intermeddles We abhor the empty professions of attach- 
ment, or the double dealing, cringing servility of action 
and demeanor, in a nominal jriend. Abhorrence, is the 
exercise of both hatred and aversion. We abhor what we 
hate, and wish to avoid or shun it. We detest that which 1 
we hate, with such strength of hatred, that we have no 
aversion to it ; but rather an instinctive desire to punish or 
destroy. We detest treachery in a confidential associate 
or friend. We detest the baseness of the wretch, who, 
with the cry of "Lord!" "Lord!" on his lips, can rob, under 
the sanction of legal right, the helpless and suffering poor ; 
the perfidy of the villain, who, while prating of patriotism, 



268 SYNONYMS. 

and philanthrophy, can enrich himself at the expense of 
the prosperity and happiness of mankind, " his country's 
gore and debts." 

Pride — Vanity — Haughtiness — Disdain. Pride is 
based on self-esteem, and is an over-conceit of ourselves. 
Vanity rests on an inordinate desire for the esteem or ap- 
plause of others. Haughtiness originates in an exalted 
view of ourselves, contrasted with others^ while Disdain, 
is the consequence of a low opinion of others, of their me- 
rits or qualifications, contrasted with ourselves? or our own 
qualities. A man may have so much esteem for himself? 
as to be regardless of the opinion of others concerning 
him : or he may have so intense a desire for the applause 
of others, as to lose all respect for himself; to loathe his 
own emptiness of mind. In other words, a person may 
be too proud to be vain, or too vain to be proud* So also 
may it be with haughtiness and disdain. A person may 
regard others in so fair a light, as not to have any disdain 
for them ; while, by his withdrawing himself in his own 
view still above them, he increases his haughtiness, by 
regarding himself as the most exalted of an exalted race, 
He may have a )ust, or perhaps a very humble estimate of 
himself; yet, at the same time, by having a still lower 
opinion of the rest of mankind, he may disdain others, 
without thinking very highly of himself. A man maybe 
too haughty to be disdainful ; or too disdainful to be 
haughty : inasmuch, as above noticed, his haughtiness may 
be constituted by his having an exalted view of his race ; 
but a more exalted opinion of himself : or his disdain rest 
on his, having* perhaps, a low opinion of himself: but a 
still lower opinion of others. Haughtiness, is manifested 
in a lofty, distant carriage and demeanor ;< disdain, by a 
silent, sullen reserve. 

Get, instead of Become, Rise, Lie, Pass* Go, Escape, 
Climb, Descend, Arrive at, Finish. To get, means 
to procure, obtain, attain, collect, amass, or accumulate ; 
and should never be used where neither of these words 
can properly be used. [No other word in the English 
language is so much abused as the word get; and no 
other, by abuse, introduces so many absurd vulgarisms as 
that word. This will be seen from the few examples which 
follow] To get drunk, [to obtain what ? Why, to ob- 



SYNONYMS* 269 

tain drunk. What an acquisition !] that is, to become in- 
toxicated. To get up, [that is, literally, to obtain up,] 
meaning, to rise. To get down, to recline or lie down. 
To get by a house ; [what an attainment that !] that is, to 
pass the house. To get out of the house, and get home ; 
that is, to go out of the house, and go home. To get away, 
that is, to escape. To get up up a hill, ladder, or river ; 
that is, to ascend it. To get down a hill, ladder, or river ; 
that is, to descend it. To get to some place, city, or town ; 
that is, to arrive at it. To get the job done ; that is, to 
finish it.* 

Note. Every one must see, that it is far better to use the words 
explaining get, than it is to use that word ; Noah Webster, to the con- 
trary, notwithstanding. It is much to be regretted, that he, after having 
examined all, should have pointed out so few, so very few, of the 
dangers incident to correct speaking and writing. Most persons that 
study the language, do it with the design and wish to attain a practical 
knowledge of it in all its correctness, in the least time possible. They 
wish to follow what experienced mariners have proved to be the most 
direct route, not having, themselves, time to traverse every sea, and cir- 
cumnavigate every island. No man has exceeded Webster in the depth 
and extent of his researches : yet few philologists have done so little in 
determining what is correct, and what, being incorrectj should be avoided ; 
in fixing way-marks for the guidance of learners, as he has done. 

Free — Independent. The term free, as applied to a 
nation, indicates that the inhabitants are not forced to sub- 
mit to a government which is not of their own forming or 
choice ; that they have no superior, who can impose any 
restraint on them, against, or in opposition, to their own 
will. This supposes that the governing power is consti- 
tuted by the people, and responsible to them ; and of course 
that the laws and constitution of the state are so formed, 
and guarded, that the rulers, appointed by the people, can 
not, with impunity, transcend the limits of their created 
power. Independent, as applied to a nation, indicates that 
the nation is> not controlled, in its internal policy, by a 
foreign power ; and supposes, also, perfect freedom to act,, 
towards other nations, as the rulers shall choose. The 
only restraint to which independent nations submit is a> 

* Another gross abuse of the word got, is placing it after have, when: 
that is used to denote possession or occupancy, not attainment. I have 
got a book in my hand, instead of, I have a book. " Have you got any 
gloves in your store ]" instead of, " Have you any gloves 1" 

23* 



270 SYNONYMS., 

moral influence, or the dictates of policy, justice oxKuman- 
ity ; and in all matters they are their own judges. A 
people may be privileged free, while the government is 
not independent ; but, in such a state,, they can not be 
secure of a continuance of the freedom, which is allowed 
them as a gift or loan, that may be resumed. A nation 
may be independent while yet the people are not free. 
Russia is an independent nation, yet wi thout freedom to the 
people; inasmuch as the governing power exists, and is 
exercised, without the consent of the governed. The 
South American republics are independent, but the people 
are not free ; for, though they acknowledge the supremacy 
of no self-substituted government, yet such is the state of 
society and the laws, that the rulers, appointed by the 
people, have the power (and they seldom lack the will) to 
oppress the people who appoint them — the thing that is 
made spurning and abusing the power that made it ! 

The people of a colony may be free by permission (not 
in fact) while dependent on the power permitting the exer- 
cise of freedom. 

Despotic-Tyrannical-Opfressive-Severe. Despo- 
tic, applied to a government supposes ruling according to 
the caprke of the' ruler ; whether in cruelty or clemency, 
in mildness or severity : while tyrannical supposes despo- 
tism with cruelty. Oppressive, applied to laws, indicates, 
not whether they are tyrannical or despotic, but that they 
are burdensome, in taxation or service, to the people ; who- 
ever may have made the laws ; as, when a city or country- 
is over taxed by a levy in money, or by the citizens' being 
obliged to spend much time in the public service. 

Laws may be made severe ; yet neither be despotic, 
tyrannical, nor oppressive. Thus, a law, (though made 
by the people and equally enforced with respect to all,) 
which would direct the hanging of man for stealing twenty- 
five cents, or, indeed, any amount, would justly be consider- 
ed severe. It could not, however, be deemed oppressive ; 
for if every man would mind, exclusively, his own busi- 
ness ; no one would be hurt. It could not be regarded as 
despotic or tyrannical; because made by the people 
towards whom it is exercised. 

A nation of freemen may govern themselves with 
severity; and may, at -present, oppress themselves, for a 
future advantage ; as in taxing a city to make present im- 



SYNONYMS. 271 

provements for securing to it future prosperity and con- 
venience. A despot may govern, in mildness, for good of 
his subjects, without being either tyrannical, oppressive, 
or severe. A tyrant governs despotically and oppressively, 
with severity and cruelty. 

Unjust — Arbitrary. Unjust, applied to any decision, 
indicates judgment not according to facts ; whether from 
accident, mistake, or design : while arbitrary, similarly 
applied, indicates a decision independent of the facts of 
the case, either in ignorance of those facts, or in disregard 
of them, when known. A man may decide unjustly, though 
meaning well ; by misjudging in relation to the facts pre- 
sented. He may give a just decision, by accident, when 
judging arbitrarily, or without reference to the facts. A 
decision, then, it is seen, may be given arbitrarily, and 
yet be just in itself: or it may be unjust without having 
been arbitrarily given. A man, giving an unjust decision, 
may be esteemed for having meant well, if he had, prior to 
the decision, endeavored to ascertain the facts, and judge 
from them ; though (from his want of discrimination) he 
should not claim respect. A man deciding arbitrarily, 
deserves no credit or respect, even when he decides aright; 
and should expect execration, when he gives an unjust 
decision. 

Delicious — ■Beautiful — Elegant. Delicious has re- 
ference only to taste. A substance that has neither beauty 
nor elegance, may be delicious. 

Neither beauty nor elegance has any reference to the 
sense called taste : # and those who talk of viands that taste 
beautifully ox elegantly, manifest great ignorance of the 
language, or great indifference towards a proper use of it. 
The turtle is delicious ; so is the oyster: but who would 
attribute elegance or beauty to either? Beauty refers par- 
ticularly to color, without, however, disregarding shape, 
or proportion, called symmetry ; and includes, when ap- 
plied to persons, the expression of face, called the coun- 
tenance : for unless the countenance beams with intelli- 
gence and and amiability of temper, mere symmetry of 
form and feature, however richly shaded may be the color, 
is as vapid and cheerless as the Northern Lights of De- 
cember. 

* Physically considered. 



272 SYNONYMS. 

Elegance refers to form, without disregarding the gene- 
ral appearance with respect to color ; and in application to 
persons, has particular reference to the demeanor and 
countenance. Elegance includes, in some degree, the 
idea of beauty; and beauty, the idea, to some extent, of 
elegance : yet, a person that is not elegant, may be pro- 
nounced beautiful ; and an object that is not beautiful, be 
regarded as elegant; if possessing those nameless graces 
of intelligence and refinement, that characterize well- 
bred persons. A person whose powers are properly ba- 
lanced, will (and should) prefer what is delicious to that 
which is disagreeable or offensive to the taste ; and what 
is proportioned and beautiful, to that which is deformed 
and ugly ; what is elegant, to that which is inelegant, rude, 
or vulgar. [ Ugly is here used as the opposite of beautiful ; 
and vulgar, to represent clownish awkwardness, and 
destitution of the refined, sentimental feeling of a well- 
bred person, as evinced in his deportment towards his fel- 
low-creatures.] 

He will derive the pleasures of sensation, from the first ; 
the higher pleasures of emotion, from the second ; and 
deep, sentimental, and abiding satisfaction from the last. 
He should not undervalue the first ; should prize, more 
highly, the second ; and should prefer the last to either 
or both of them. To prefer the first, would exhibit him 
as a swine, not as a man : to prefer the second, would ex- 
hibit him as a medium — a brute-man : to prefer the last, 
and relish the others, is Nature's, Reason's, WISDOM'S 
choice. [Pupil, excuse my digression from literature ; I had 
almost forgotten that I was writing on Synonyms.] 

N. B. Here I will add what, by accident, was omitted 
on page 175. Although the word if, as contrasted with 
though, is fully treated of on that page; it should have 
been added, that if, in proposing, inquiring, and asking, 
maybe used synonymously with whether or not; as, I 
asked John if he would lend me his umbrella — that is, 
whether or not he would lend me his umbrella, I inquired 
if John had gone home. 

Note. The limits of this edition will not allow further remarks on 
what are used as synonyms. For further information on this subject^ 
the pupil is referred to Crahbe's " English Synonyms, " 



PREFIXES. 273 

TABLE OF PREFIXES. 

A, with its French meaning, signifies at, on, or in, what 
is represented by the rest of the word ; as, a-shore, a-drift, 
a-float, a-sleep, a-board. 

An, generally signifies to, and frequently exchanges the 
d, for a letter Of the same kind as that which begins the 
next syllab'e ; as, ad-duce, to Jead to ; acZ-dict, to devote 
or apply one's self to something, habitually; aocede, (in- 
stead of a<i-cede,) to give or yield to; q/'-fix, (ad-ftx,) to 
fix or join to ; aZ-lude, to hint at or refer to ; an-nex, to 
attach or join to. 

A, with its Latin signification, or ah, or abs, means from 
or by ; as, a-vert, to turn from ; adduce, to lead from ; ab- 
breviate, to shorten by taking from ; a&s-tract, to draw 
from, or take from. 

Con, which sometimes changes its n, for a letter of the 
same kind as that which begins the next syllable, means 
with or together ; as, con-nect, to join together; coZ-lect, 
to bring together ; t'on-solidate, to make strong or solid, 
by blending or joining closely together ; ccm-verse, to talk 
wit h. 

Contra, and Anti, mean against ; as, contradict, to 
speak against ; contra-veue, to come against, or in oppo- 
sition to ; anta'-republican, against, or opposed to republi- 
can, ot the republic ; an^'-masonry, against masonry; anti- 
dote, that which operates against poison, or disease, or 
trouble. 

E — ex, meaning ovt of, or from; as e-duce, to lead or 
bring out; e-ject, to throw or cast out ; extract, to draw 
or take out. 

Fore, and Ante, mean before ; as fore-le\\, to tell be- 
fore ; /ore-run, to run before ; fore-see, to see before ; 
a/?,£e-cedent, going before, or one going before ; awte-date, 
to date before ; arcte-past, a feast before ; a/ite-deluvian, 
before the deluge or flood. 

Ge, means relating to the earth; as o-e-ology, the sci- 
ence of the earth's structure and formation ; g-e-ometry, 
the measure of the earth ; and thence the science of mea- 
surement generally considered. 

In, means in, into, not, or against. It exchanges its n, 
for m, or a letter of the same kind that begins the next syl- 
lable ; as z/z-nate, born in ; z/z-herent, sticking or remains 



274 PREFIXES. 

ing within ; z'Z-lude, to draw in by deceit : i?i-dict, to speak 
or declare against ; m-possible, not possible ; in-discreet, 
not discreet, unadvisable ; m-grave, to carve in, [not on.] 
Ob, means against, or upon. It sometimes exchanges 
its b, for another letter; as, obstruct, to raise or build 
against ; ob-trude, to thrust upon or go against ; op-pose, 
[06-pose] to place against. 

Re, means back, again, or a repetition; as re-turn, to 
come or go back ; re-sume, to take back ; re-invest, to in- 
vest again ; re-assume, to assume again. 

Se, means aside, or apart from; as, se-duee, to draw 
aside; se-cede, to go aside, or apart from, to withdraw. 

Sun, means under, from, or after. It sometimes ex- 
changes its b, for another letter ; as, swZ>-structure, some- 
thing built under, as a foundation ; sub-tract, to take from ; 
sub-join, to join under or after ; sub-scribe, to write under ; 
sub-marine, under the sea ; sw6-terranean, under the earth. 

Super, or Sur, means on, above, over, or in addition 
to; as, super-structure, something built on something; 
super-human, above human ; super-abundance, over abun- 
dance ; superscribe, to write on, or over, or above some- 
thing ; swr-pass, to overgo or exceed ; swr-plus, that 
which is over the necessary amount; sur-name, the name 
used (for distinguishing a family,) in addition to that by 
which one child is distinguished from another of the same 
family.* 

Trans, meaning from or beyond; as, transcribe, to 
copy from ; trans-late, to bear from ; trans-marine, be- 
yond the sea ; trans -Atlantic, beyond the Atlantic. 

It is amusing and instructive to notice the relatives 
which are peculiar to asserters and names, formed by the 
union of these prefixes with other parts of the words ; 
some having relatives of the same import as the prefixes, 
and some requiring those of a different meaning. Thus : 

* In, sub, and super, are seen quite different, in the application to an 
epistle or letter. We $?/.£-scribe our own names near the right hand part 
of the bottom of the epistle. We inscribe the letter or piece, by writing 
under the left hand part of the page, the name of the person to whom it 
is addressed. We super-scribe the letter, by writing on the outside, tha 
name of the person to whom it is to be sent, 



SUFFIXES. 



275 



Asserters. 
A-vert from 

.Abstract from 

Ao-duce from 

Ad-here to 

Abbreviate, to j 
shorten by tak'g < 
Ad-dict to 

Af-nx to 

Cow-verse with 
Con-nect with 



from 



in 



Cor-respond with 
Con-cur, [with 

a person] 
Cow-fide in 

.Extract* from 



jE-ject 


from 


Jw-here 


to 


05-trude 


upon 


O^-pose 


to 


Re-turn 


to 


Pre-ier 


to 


-Re-ply 


to 


Bc-pose 


in 


Se-cede 


from 


Se elude 


from 


£w6-tract 


from 


Tra«5-cribef 


from 


Translate 


from 



with 



Names. 

A-version to something 
Ao-stract of or from " 
Ao-duction from " 

Ad-herence to " 

Abbreviation of " 

.Ad-diction to " 

Affixture to " 

Conversation with " 
Coft-nexion or 
Co?/ -nection 
Cor-respondence with 
Co7t-currence, ) . 

[with one] $ 
CoTi-fulence in 
jE:z> tract or ) of or 
jRa7-traction $ from 
JE-jection from 
Jn-herence to 
Oo-trusion upon 

Opposition to 

J£e-turning to 
Pre-ference to 
.Re-plication to 
jRe-posing in 
iSe-cession from 

&e-clusion from 

$wo-traction 
[of something] 

Trcms-eript of 

Trans-cription from 

TVa/is-lation from 



from 



TABLE OF SUFFIXES. 
Able, or Ible, means capable of, liable to, or subject to, 
that which the first part of the word indicates ; or to which 

* It is amusing, or lamentable, (whichever way it may be regarded,) 
to hear persons, pretending to literature, and moving in the first circles 
of society, talk of the pain of having a tooth pulled ! instead of ex- 
tracted, or drawn out. A man'may have all his teeth pulled; without 
having any of them taken out, or extracted. 

t The 5 of the last syllable is omitted, in the derivative. 



216 SUFFIXES. 

it relates ; as, tax-able, that may be taxed ; liable to taxa- 
tion ; sufler-aoZe, that may be suffered or endured; move- 
able, that may be moved, liable to be moved, subject to 
removal ; ezt-able, that is fit to be eaten, or may be eaten ; 
cred-ible, that may be credited or believed ; compress-fo/e, 
that may be compressed. 

Ive, means doing-, denoting', or pertaining to that whicji 
the first part of the word indicates ; as, impress-i^e, that 
impresses; pervers-ive, that perverts ; indicat-iue, that in- 
dicates ; interrogat-z'ye, that interrogates, or pertains to an 
interrogation ; effect-?'z;e, that produces, or may or can 
produce, an effect. 

Ness, means fulness or abundance, of that quality which 
the first part of the word indicates, and represents, in the 
abstract, what would be represented, by the first part of 
the word, as belonging to some object : as, sweet-ness, a 
sweet apple. Here, sweet-7iess* is the abstract name of 
that quality, which, by the adname sweet, is represented 
as pertaining to an object, the apple. Good fruit has the 
quality of goodness. Wicked-ness, the name of that qua- 
lity, considered, in the abstract, which, when represented 
as connected with, or pertaining or belonging to, an object, 
is denoted by an adname ; as, a wicked man. 

Ion, Ing, or Ation, added to an asserter in the primary 
form, makes the name of the action or influence, which is 
marked by the asserter as being exerted by something ; as, 
fabricate, thence, fabricating- and fabricat-zo/i ; vindicate, 
thence vindicat-mg- or vindicat-zcm; dispute, thence dis- 
puting*, disput-a^'cm ; emancipate, emancipat-mg*, eman- 
cipation ; colonize, coloniz-zng*, colomz-ation ; condemn, 
condem-ning, condem-nation.* 

Ize, denotes making or causing to be, the object or state 
of being which the rest of the word would indicate : as, 
colony, thence co\on-ize, to form a colony ; subsid-zVe, to 
grant or raise a subsidy ; general-^e, to make or render 
general, or treat on a subject generally, or in a general 
manner ; particular-z^e, to render more particular, to treat 
particularly. 

Ous, signifies like, or pertaining to, that which would 

* The assertive name formed by adding ing to the primary form of 
the asserter, may be used in any place, both as an asserter and a name. 



PROSODY. 277 

be represented by the rest of the word ; or by the rest and 
ity added ; as, murder, thence murder-ows ; hazard, haz- 
ard-ows ; prosper, prosperity, prosper-o&s; barbarity, 
barbar-ows ; felicity, felicit-ows. 

Ity, is added to constitute that word, as the abstract 
name of the action, which the asserter represents as 
taking place ; as, to prosper, thence, prosper-zty ; perplex, 
thence perplexity. It is sometimes added to form the 
name, of that quality in the abstract, which the ad name 
represents as belonging to some object or thing; as, pro- 
lix, thence prolix-zty ; flexible, flexibility ; docile, docil- 
ity; ductile, ductility ; compressible, compressibility. 

Note. More space cannot be given to prefixes and suffixes. The 
English student will do well to study with care "Town's Analysis, " 
which, (notwithstanding its few errors,) is a most estimable work : Os- 
good's Etymylogical Dictionary, and other similar works ; not neglect- 
ing Webster's Octavo Dictionary. 

CHAPTER XVII. 

PROSODY, 

Treats of utterance, punctuation, (including characters 
that are not regarded as letters,) the use of capital letters 
and versification. 

Part L 

tTTTERANCE 

Is vocal expression, and may be divided into two parts* 
Pronunciation and Elocution* 

Pronunciation 

Regards the speaking of the sounds of letters, syllables, 
and words. 

Rule 1. Give each letter of the syllable which is not 
mute or silent, its distinct sound: at least, so far, as by 
the utmost care it is possible to sound it distinctly in con- 
nection with others ; yet do not give it a heavy stress of 
voice which would distinguish it particularly from others, 
unless that distinction is necessary. 

Rule 2. Give each syllable of a word its own sound ; 
yet do not give a full stress or accent to all ; but allow one 

24 



278 ELOCUTION. 

syllable to bear a greater stress of voice or force of titter* 
ance than another ; following* in that particular, the accen- 
tuation of words, as given by our best lexicographers ; as, 
ab-bre'-vi-ate, com-mem/-o-rate, col'-lege, comple'-tion. 

Note. Nothing can excuse the violation of these two rules ; for, 
however much the French, and some other languages, may allow the syl- 
lables of a word to be blended and their distinct pronunciation to be lost, 
the English language requires, in letters and syllables, a distinct articu- 
lation. 

ELOCUTION 

Treats of the speaking of words, when arranged in sen- 
tences, and sentences, when arranged in a discourse. 

Rule 1. Speak with perfect distinctness, every word 
of a sentence varying the emphasis of the different words 
according to tbe nature of the ideas which they pre- 
sent ; giving the full emphasis only to those words which 
form the more prominent features of a sentence or a dis- 
course ; as, 

They tell us, Sir, that we are weak ; unable to cope with 
so formidable an adversary ! but when shall we be stron- 
ger ? Will it be the next week ? or the next year ? Will it 
be when an enemy's guard shall be stationed in every 
house ? Shall we gather strength by irresolution and in- 
action 1 Shall we acquire the means for effectual resis- 
tance by lying supinely on our backs, and hugging the 
delusive phantom of Hope, till our enemies shall have 
bound us hand and foot ? Sir, we are not weak : if we 
make a proper use of the means which the God of Na- 
ture has put into our power. Three millions of people, 
armed in the holy cause of Liberty ; and in such a coun- 
try as we possess, are invincible, by any force which any- 
enemy can send against us. 

Besides, Sir, we shall not fight our battles alone. There 
is a just God, that presides over the destinies of nations 
and will raise us friends to fight our battles for us. The 
battle, Sir, is not to the strongs alone : it is to the vigilant ; 
the active; the brave! Besides, Sir, we have no choice. 
Though we were base enough to desire it; it is now too late 
to retire from the contest. There is no retreat but in 
submission and slavery! Our chains are forged! Their 
clanking may be heard on the plains of Boston ! The war 



ELOCUTION. 279 

is inevitable ; and let it come ! I repeat it, Sir ; let it 

COME ! ! 

It is vain to extenuate the matter. Gentlemen may cry, 
" peace /" "peace!" but there is no peace. The war is 
actually begun. The next gale that shall sweep from the 
North will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms ! 
Our brethren are already in the field ! Why stand we here 
idle ? What is it that gentlemen wish ? What would they 
have ? Is life so dear ; are chains so sweet, as to be pur- 
chased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, 
Almighty God ! I know what course others may take ; 
but as for myself, give me Liberty ! or give me Death ! 

P. Henry. 

Note. Let the pupil read this as it is emphasized ; then read it, em- 
phasizing all the words alike, then read it all in an ordinary tone without 
particularly emphasizing any ; and he will see the advantage of attend- 
ing to his manner of speaking the words of a sentence. 

Rule 2. As the sense of the expression can in some 
sentences be varied by changing the emphasis, from one 
word to another; be careful to adapt the emphasis to the 
expression of the right idea. Example. / saw William's 
father, where he had seen him. [This would indicate that; 
I saw William's father where William had seen him.] I 
saw William's father, where he he had seen him. [This 
would indicate that I saw William's father where the father 
had seen William.] 

Rule 3. Follow, in speaking sentences, the same 
principle that is inculcated by rule I, for the speaking of 
words : that is, speak, with perfect distinctness yet in a 
middle tone the ordinary parts of a discourse ; and, as oc- 
casion may require, (and according to the sentiment,) ele- 
vate or depress your voice. 

Non. The violation of this rule is productive of the worst conse- 
quences. The human mind is so constituted that it can not always be 
excited without cause : And whether a speaker is always sounding at the 
highest key of his voice, or in a middle, or under tone, the monotony can 
not fail to defeat the object in view ; to lull the physical and mental 
powers, and deaden every feeling of interest which may at first have been 
excited by the subject of the discourse. u Let the sound be adapted to the 
sense," is the best direction that can be given for the utterance of words 
and sentences. All persons are taught by instinct that the modulations 
of the voice must be different in expressing the feelings of mildness,, 



280; PTJNCTUAUION. 

benignity, and affection, from those which it assumes when giving venr 
to sentiments or feelings of anger, ambition, boldness, or magnanimity. 

PART- II;. 

PUNCTUATION 

Is dividing sentences and the words of sentences, by 
pauses, which aid in showing more clearly y the closer or 
more distant relation of ideas or sentiments to each other. 
The principal characters with which written sentences are 
marked, are the comma, [,] semicolon, [;] colon,. [.:] period? 
[.] dash, [ — J interrogative sign, [?] exclamatory sign, [!j 
parenthesis, [()] bracket, [] apostrophe, ['] hyphen, [-} 
caret, [T] double comma, or sign of quotation, [""] index? 
or hand, [fOr*] paragraph, [IT] sectional sign, [§]■ blank or 
ellipsis, [* * *] asterisk, and marginal references, [* f t II J 
and the brace, [^v^]. 

Note. No directions for punctuation can be given that will meet 
every contingence, in every variety of style ; yet a few rules may be- 
brought to bear on the subject, and these, acting as general guides, may 
be adapted to the several diversities of style. The remark concerning 
semicolon, the colon, and the period can only be regarded as general ad<- 
visory hints> 

THE COMMA 

Directs making, a pause of a second in duration, or Iess„ 
according to the nature of the subject, or the slowness or 
rapidity of the speaker's delivery. 

Rule 1. Several words of any class, preceding another 
of the same class, require a comma after each one which 
is not followed by a connective; as, William, Henry, Seth 
and JameSy were forward in all literary pursuits.* 

Rule 2~ A name or substitute given in addition to» 
and explanatory of a prior one, requires a comma after 
that, and the one which that is given to explain ; as, Patrick 
Henry, " the orator of nature/' was the first elected go-, 
vernor of Virginia. 

Rule 3. A name or substitute in the subjective case 

* When the words are very emphatic the comma may follow even a 
word that has a connective following it, as, John, James, and Henry are^ 
gone to their final rest. 



Punctuation. 281 

must have a comma after it, if followed by an asserter in 
the unlimited mode ; and having an asserter in some other 
mode depending on it for sense ; as, Buonaparte, wrapped 
in the solitude of his own originality, sat, grand, gloomy, 
and peculiar, a sceptred hermit, on the throne. — Philips. 

Rule 4. A name or substitute in the subjective case, 
followed by an adname or by an appendant phrase which 
comes between that and the asserter which depends on it 
for sense, must have a comma after it, and one after the 
adname or appendant phrase ; as, 

" Charity, decent, modest, easy, kind, 
Softens the high, and rears the abject, mind." 

John, with his sister, was met by their cousins, at the 
Clifton House. 

Rule 5. Any word occurring before an asserter, unless 
it is the dependence of the asserter, requires a comma after 
it ; as, John, the brother of Henry, is dead. Also, words 
used as opposites, or similarities, require commas after 
them ; as, I spoke to, and q/*, my brother. 

Rule 6. Appendant phrases or single words, when not 
standing in regular prosic order, require commas after 
each of them ; as, 

11 Then lambs, with wolves, shall graze the verdant mead ; 
And boys, in flowery bands, the tiger, lead." 

Rule 7. Words repeated, for the sake of fuller em- 
phasis, require a comma after each of them ; as, 

Never, no, never, will just Heaven accuse 

Her who, for virtue, poor, can gold and fame refuse. 

Rule 8. A name or simple substitute followed by a 
connective substitute between that and the asserter depend- 
ing on it, must have a comma after each ; as, James, who, 
while here, assisted his father, is now absent. 

Rule 9. A substitute phrase in the subjective case 
requires a comma after it ; as, " To envy another's talents, 
fortune, or lot, is, to confess our own inferiority : To be 
wise, good and useful, is the privilege and duty of all.* 

* A substitute phrase in the subjective case after an asserter, requires 
a comma before it ; as, to be good, is, to be happy. 

24* 



2S2r. PUNCTUATIONS 

Rule 10. When an asserter, or any important word;, 
necessary to the fullness of the sentence, as a simple sen- 
tence, is omitted, a comma must supply its place ; as,. 
" Faith vvorketh patience ; and patience, experience ; and 
experience, hope."* 

Rule 11. An emphatic modifier, coming between a 
word in the subjective case, and its asserter,. or between the 
auxiliary, and the principal asserter, requires a comma be- 
fore it, and another after it : as, John, quite often, asserts, 
that he never knew a friend. He must, consequently, be 
very wretched. 

Rule 12* Different members of the compound sentence,, 
when representing ideas or facts in close connection, re- 
quire commas between them ; as, 

When thought meets thought, ere, from the lips, it part, 
And each warm wish springs mental from the heart. — Burns. 

THE SEMICOLON, COLON, AND PERIOD, 

THE SEMICOLON 

Indicates a pause double in length of time to that of the 
comma. A period is used at the end of a discourse; or, 
when occurring in a discourse, at the end of a sentence. 
The pause denoted by it should be about six times longer 
that that of a comma. The intermediate degress of pauses 
are marked by the semicolon and the colon ; the former 
being used when the pause to be made is nearer, in point 
of duration, to the comma, than to the period ; and the lat- 
ter, when the pause should be nearer to the period than to 
the comma. 

Remaik. When several parts of a compound succeed 
each other, if the sense indicates that the pause, between 
them, should be nearer in point of time to the comma than 
to the period, use the semicolon ; but when the pause 
should be nearer in point of time to the period than to the 
comma, use the colon. f Semicolon ;— " He, only, who can 
hold his course with patience and equanimity ; he who can 

* Here words are joined in couplets, following subjective and objective 
words being connected with prior ones and having, with those to which 
they are joined, a common relation to. the other parts of the sentence. 

t A word of the second person, and in the subjective case, must have 
a semicolon after it ; as, John ; hear me. 



PUNCTUATION. 283- 

meet, with firmness or resignation, the various ills of life ; 
he who is prepared to bear, what he must expect to hap- 
pen ; is worthy of the name of man." Colon : [This has a. 
pause four-fold greater than the comma,] as, The farmer 
sold his house : he leased his mills : he mortgaged his 
iarm : he engaged in merchandize ; failed, and ran away. 
The period is to be used when the sentiment expressed by 
one sentence has not an immediate connexion with that 
expressed by another; as, " He spake ; and it was done. 
He commanded ; and it stood fast." 

Rule. The Period is to be used after each abbrevia- 
tion of a word ; a?, N. Y. S. C. The Dash is to be used' 
where there is an abrupt change or break in the sentence ; 
as, Give me both gold and ease to make me blessed. Fool — 
sure am I, to think of bliss in these. Bliss must be — yes, 
it must, within myself, or not at all. It must be — nothing's 
surer, found in virtue, active life, approving conscience 
whispering Heaven's smiles. 

The-Interrogative sign is placed at the conclusion of an 
interrogative sentence ; as, William, where did you leave 
James ? Is Henry well ? 

N. B. In reading or speaking an interrogation beginning with an asserter, 
(either principal or auxiliary,) close it with a raised tone voice : except when 
there are two- members of the interrogative sentence, joined by or in a man- 
ner implying doubt,, wihen the falling tone is to be used. The low tone is to 
close a sencence beginning with any other part of speech. 

The Exclamatory sign is placed after an exclamation, or 
at the end of an exclamatory sentence ; as, I Absalom ! 
my son ! O ! Liberty ! 

The Parenthesis includes the expression of some idea 
suggested by the train of remarks, and which, although not 
absolutely necessary to the sense of the discourse, tends to 
throw some light upon the subject ; as, Time is our best- 
estate. On that (it is one only hope) hangs our present 
and future happiness. 

The Brackets or crotchets, are used to enclose explana- 
tory remarks which do not belong to the chain of ideas or 
events, but may be necessary to a right understanding of a 
discourse ; as, " A gigantic statue having been seen at the 
mouth of the cavern, it was resolved that we [the French, 
consul and myself] should pay it a visit." 

The Apostrophe is a comma used in the place of some 
letter or letters ; as, e'er, for ever ; ne'er, for never. [The 



284 PUNCTUATION. 

vowels have the same sound as though the consonants 
were expressed.] 

It is also used in forming the possessive case ; as, John's 
book. 

The Hyphen is used to join two words; as, church-yard; 
or to keep distinct what should be separate syllables ; as, 
zo-ology, co-operation. 

The Caret is a sign to show where the words that are 
interlined must be read ; as, John came some time during 

last 
the last week. [The necessity of using the sign at all, 

shows great inattention.] 

The Double Comma [sign of quotation] includes words 
that have been taken from another author ; as, " Do to 
others, as ye would that they should do to you ;" is term- 
ed the Savior's golden rulel [Where you quote from a 
quotation, use only single commas, placed as are the double 
ones above.] 

The Index or Hand directs the reader to some remark 
worthy of particular attention. 

The Paragraph stands at the beginning of a new subject. 
[This is used almost exclusively in the old Bibles.] 

The Sectional sign is placed, as in law books, at the 
beginning of a section. 

The Blank, or Ellipsis, is used where either some of the 
letters of a word, some of the words of a sentence, or some 
sentences of a discourse, are omitted. 

The Asterisk and marginal references refer the reader 
to the margin or bottom of the page, for some explanatory 
remarks. 

The Brace includes words expressing several matters or 
things which sustain a like relation to something else. 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 

The substitute I, and the exclamation O, the first word 
of every sentence in prose, and the first word of every line 
in poetry should begin with a capital : as also, the names 
of the Deity, and all other particular names : the names of 
the sciences, when several are mentioned ; as, Grammar, 
Geology, Astronomy : adnames derived from particular 
names ; as, Parisian, English : and the important words- 



PUNCTUATION. 285 

constituting the names of theories or essays ; as " Dyck- 
man's Manual," " English Reader," " Christian Pattern," 
44 Mason's Self-Knowledge ;" and the names of other 
things when used very emphatically ; as, 

" Know thyself, presume not God to scan ; 
The proper study of mankind is Man :" 

and every quotation following a colon ; as, Always rem era 
ber this maxim : " Time is our best estate." 

EXAMPLES OF THE EFFECTS OF WRONG PUNCTUATION. 

' W. J., having gone to sea his wife, desires the prayers 
of the congregation, for his safe return.' — Alexander. 

This would, when read indicate that W. J. dared not visit his wife, 
without Heaven's special interference for his protection! but when pro- 
perly punctuated, the sentiment is a very interesting one — thus : 

W. J. having gone to sea; his wife desires the prayers 
of the congregation for his safe return. 

This indicates the tenderness of the wife ; her solicitude in relation to 
the safety of her husband ; and her confidence in the power and willing- 
ness of Heaven to protect him. 

* There is a lady in the land; that has twenty nails on- 
each hand : five and twenty on her hands and feet.' — 
Alexander. 

This would indicate that the lady referred to has forty fingernails ; 
and fifteen nails, more, on her hands alone, than on both her hands and 
feet. A strange principle . of arithmetic, that ten added to forty makes 
the sum of twenty -five 1 This, properly punctuated, would explain the 
mysterious expression, and no longer represent the fair one, as a mon- 
ster : thus : 

There is a lady in the land, that has twenty nails ; on 
each hand, five ; and twenty, on her hands and feet. 

Note. Although it may be thought that mere punctuation seldom 
causes so different a representation of a matter, yet it may cause or pre- 
vent even greater and more serious errors in expressing a fact. The pupi] 
should be carefully exercised in this part of grammar. 

VERSIFICATION 
Has been regarded as a part of Prosody ; not so much 
from the supposition,, that, directing a person how to be- 
come a poet! is a part of grammar, as from the fact that, 



286 VERSIFICATION. 

with respect to the choice and arrangement of words^ 
greater attention is necessary in poetry than in prose. 

The sum of this part of Prosody may be given in few 
words. 

Rhyme is the correspondence, in sound, of the closing 
part of one ]ine with that of another ; as, 

" The" grog-er* " murders child and wife : 

Nor matters it a pin, 
Whether he stabs them with his knife-, 

Or starves them with his gin" H. More. 

Here, the third line is said to rhyme with the first, and the fourth with 
the second. 

A foot, in poetry, consists of one accented syllable and 
the Unaccented ones, sounded in immediate connection 
with it ; as, 

Let not | this weak \ un-know | ing hand, \ 

Vre-sume | thy bolts, | to throw; | 
And deal | dam-?za | tion round | the land, | 

On each | 1 judge | thy foe. | 
If 1 | am right, | thy grace \ im-part, \ 

Still in | the right \ to stay. | [me] 
If I | am wrong, \ O ! teach | my heart | 

To find | the bet \ ter way! 

Pope.j 

Here, each couple of syllables between the perpendicu- 
lar lines, constitutes a foot. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 

First. — Be careful to have the corresponding lines of a 
stanza agree as to the number of feet in them ; and the num- 
ber and order of the unaccented syllables, which, with the 
accented one compose each foot ; and be sure to arrange 
your words in such a manner as not to render it necessary 
to accent or emphasise syllables or words, in poetry, as 
they should not be pronounced in prose ; and to make the 
last foot of each line, rhyme with the last foot of its cor- 
responding line. 

* One who sells intoxicating drinks, as a beverage. 

t " The Universal Prayer"— -[what should be ; not what is.] 



VERSIFICATION. 287 

Example. 

Here lies a poor youth, who called drink-ing his bliss ; 
And was ru-ined by say-mg, " What harm is in £/h's r 1 
Let eac/t passer-5y, to this >r-ror, at-tend, 
And Ze<2r7i of poor .DzcA:, to re-mem-ber the end. 

H. More. 

Note. These words, in poetic measure, require only the accent and 
emphasis that they would require in prose composition. Thus : 

Here lies a poor youth, who called drink-'mg his bliss : 
and was rw-ined by say-mg, " What,A<zr?7i is in this?" Let 
each passer-by at-tend to this er-ror ; and learn of poor 
Dick, to re-mem-her the end. 

Violation. 

* # # # # • 

Or sunset, streaming through a gothic sky-light, 
Or distant lightning, on the horizon by night. 

Byron. 

Nole. Here it is seen that the relative hy is forced into a place where 
emphasis should be placed ; while yet, in itself, it has no claim to em- 
phasis. 

Second. — In reading poetry, accent and emphasize, in 
the same manner, make the same pauses that would be re- 
quisite in reading, without reference to the rhyming pro- 
perties of the piece ; and, in addition, at the end of each 
line, if there is no pause marked, make one of half the 
length of time indicated by a comma. As 

Republics ; kingdoms ; empires, may decay ; 

Princes, heroes, sages, sink to nought ; 

And ev'n the name of nations sink away, 

Nor leave a vestige of their former lot. 

A thousand revolutions yet may blot, 

With tales of blood and crime, the deathless page, 

Where are recorded, ne'er to be forgot, 

The deeds of passion in its wildest rage — 

The vice and folly of each by-gone age. 

But while thy waters, Mississippi ; roll ; 

While floats a sail upon [on] thy turbid breast ; 

The course of man is — on ! The human soul 

W'ill lise from good to better, thence, to best ; 

In its eternal progress, know no rest; 



£88 RHETORIC. 

Till it can range through earth, and sea, and skies ; 
And be in all, alike, supremely blest : 
In wisdom, and in virtue, it shall rise 
To the First cause, Grand souece, cf all that's 
good and wise. 

J. Cooper La-Rue. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

RHETORIC, 

Treats generally and particularly of the adaption of 
words to the expression of ideas. 

Part I. 

Orthography treats of the nature of separate distinct 
sounds, with letters as their signs; and the manner of 
combining those sounds or their signs, to form them into 
words for the representation of separate ideas : 

Etymology treats of the nature of words as representa- 
tives of ideas, their classification according to their respec- 
tive nature, powers and uses ; of the changes, in form and 
application, which they have to undergo, when united in 
sentences : 

Syntax treats of the choice of words preparatory to ar- 
ranging them in sentences ; the manner of arranging and 
combining them to form sentences ; their relation to, their 
dependence and influence on, each other, when combined ; 
and determines which of their forms, and what relations, 
they assume, when entering the combination : 

Prosody treats of the pronunciation of the sounds of 
letters, words and sentences ; the pauses or rests, between 
words and sentences, and other matters pertaining to the 
modulations of the voice and versification ; while 

RHETORIC 

Sits as supervisor of the whole, giving directions 
for the combination and use of all the constituent princi- 
ples of the language; adapting them to the attainment 
of the objects of communication. 

The grand requisite for the attainment of this end is a 
<jood taste, or such mental and moral acquirements as 



PERSPICUITY. 289 

shall enable us to discern, on all occasions, what language 
is besc adapted to engage the attention ; to enliven the ima- 
gination ; to inform and convince the understanding ; to 
move the heart ; and thus control the will, and guide the 
actions of men. 

The first step towards the formation of a good discourse, 
is a thorough knowledge of the subject on which we would 
speak or write ; its nature in the abstract ; its effects, im- 
mediate, collateral, and contingent, on the various depart- 
ments of life ; and particularly its adaptation to the cir- 
cumstances of the community whose members we would 
address; together with a consciousness, in ourselves, of 
the importance of the subject of the essay. 

For the right expression of a discourse, nine principles 
should be carefully regarded : viz. Perspicuity. Preci- 
sion, Purity, Fullness, Propriety, Union, Harmony, 
Strength, and Euphony. 

PERSPICUITY 

Consists in clearness of expression, or freedom from any 
thing like obscurity. It is the prime principle of Gram- 
mar ; one which cannot, on any account, be violated with 
impunity. To speak or write, without being able to re- 
present our ideas in such a manner as to render them in- 
telligible, would be, to defeat the very object which we 
have in view. Besides, nothing can tend so much to the 
vexation and embarrassment of the hearer or reader, as to 
have the style of the speaker or writer a barrier against 
his ideas, instead of being the vehicle of their communica- 
tion. 

Rule. Choose and arrange both the words and sen- 
tences, of a discourse in such a manner that their signifi- 
tion shall be distinct, that their relation to, their influence 
and dependence on, each other, may be so clear and deter- 
minate that the meaning of the whole shall be obvious at 
the first view. 

VIOLATION. 

Hail holy light ! offspring of heaven, first born ; 
Or, of the eternal, co-eternal beam ! 

25 



290 PRECISION. 

May I, unblam'd, express thee 1 Since God is light? 
And never, but in unapproached light, 
Dwelt from eternity ; dwelt then in thee, 
Bright effluence of bright essence increate ! 
Or hearest thou, rather, pure ethereal stream, 
Whose fountain who shall tell ! — Milton. 

Note. This may be read ; but a person must have had a long and 
familiar acquaintance with Milton's works, to be able to understand it. 
It is the perfection of obscurity ; and, from a cursory perusal, can hardly 
be guessed at. 

The meaning of it must be, 

Hail holy light ! First born Offspring of Heaven ! Or, (since God 
is light ; and never, from eternity, dwelt but [only] in unapproached light : 
dwelt then [therefore] in thee, bright effluence of bright essence increate ; 
[uncreated]) may I unblamed express [or call] thee, the co-eternal beam 
of the Eternal ? Or hearest thou, rather, [wouldst thou rather have me 
call thee] pure ethereal Stream, whose fountain, who shall tell 1 

PRECISION 

Consists in making every expression have some direct 
point and bearing. This is opposed to ambiguity. It 
renders the meaning and intention of each remark, obvious 
and certain ; and by that means gives force to the senti- 
ment itself. 

Rule. Choose and arrange words in such a manner 
that, while the intended meaning shall be perfectly obvious, 
no other can possibly be drawn from the expression. 
[This always may, and always should be done.] 

VIOLATION. 

" Whenever two-thirds of the members of the both 
houses of congress shall deem it necessary, &c. &c. — 

Constitution of U. S. 

Note. Suppose, then, that the house of representatives comprised 
two hundred and forty-eight members ; and the senate, fifty-two. This 
would make the whole number three hundred ; two-thirds of which 
number would be two hundred. Then (as constitutions should, like penal 
statutes, be strictly construed,) if two hundred members of the house of 
representatives should deem necessary, the enactment referred to, by the 
above quotation, it must become a law ; although forty-eight representa- 
tives, and all of the senators, should vote against the enactment : exactly 
as it would be if the members of the two houses, should sit and act to- 



PURITY — FULLNESS. 291 

gether, as one body of men. That by the words, above quoted, the 
framers of the constitution, intended, that a vote of two-thirds of the mem- 
bers of each house, acting separately should be necessary to the passage 
of the law, all agree ; although the meaning of the words used, would 
weaken the senate by merging it in effect, though not in fact, in the 
house of representatives. This would be in the inevitable consequence 
of allowing the words both houses to have their own signification. 

PURITY 

Is opposed to the use of words that are not embodied in 
the English vocabulary ; and which, of course, cannot be 
understood by those who understand only the English lan- 
guage. 

Rule. Use no words but those which belong to the 
English language and are, in fact, English words ; or those 
which are so derived from English words that their affinity 
to them will leave no doubt of their signification. 

Note. The use of foreign words can not be too severely censured. 
Such words, for example, as maun, ween^ non chalance, pari passu beau 
monde coute que coute, sang froid, and thousands of others that abouud 
in our falsely termed first rate papers. 

The violation of the principle of purity is a violation, also, of that of 
perspicuity and of precision ; for no person, using words that are not 
understood, can expect to give his hearers or readers either a clear or pre- 
cise idea of what he would communicate. When an idea shall be con- 
ceived, that the English language can not represent ; any term, ex- 
plained, is proper for its representation. 

FULLNESS 

Consists in expressing every idea, to be communicated, 
by some word appropriately chosen and arranged to repre- 
sent it ; so that a sentence shall not be weakened by having 
any word in it overtaxed, by being made to represent too 
much. 

Rule. Let every idea be denoted by an appropriate 
word ; so that a sentence may be a full and perfect repre- 
sentation of the sentiment to be expressed. 

VIOLATION. 

Think not with wind of airy threats 

To awe whom yet with deeds thou canst not. — Milton. 

To whom our great progenitor Thy words 

Attentive, and with more delighted ear, 
Divine Instructor, I have heard. — Id. 



292 PROPRIETY — UNION. 



PROPRIETY 



Consists in using, according to their individual meaning', 
the words by which a sentiment is to be expressed; in 
avoiding all vulgarisms, and all low phrases ; such as, get 
a way : he's a good feller : thafs too bad, any way 
you can fix it: the contractions of words as isn't, aint, 
cant, shant, couldn't, wouldn't, don't wont, and the like : 
the use of two or more negatives, in expressing a simple 
negative ; the use of such words as can add nothing to the 
sense, unless, without injury to the sense, they would give 
smoothness to the expression; and using to express certain 
ideas, words whose meaning is different from what we de- 
signed to express** 

Examples. 
John will not go home to-night, I do not believe. Seth 
wont learn his lesson this forenoon, I do not think. "Abra- 
ham rose up early in the morning." " And when he had 
entered into Capernaum he began to teach." " You are 
about to enter upon [that is, to go into upon] one of the 
most pleasing studies." Kirkham's address to the learner. 
I returned back home again. I refunded the money back 
to him again. [The last two examples are said to be tau- 
tological ; and tautology is not allowable.] 

Rule. Express every idea according to the principles 
of strict propriety, as above defined; having all words 
chosen and arranged in accordance with the rules of Eng- 
lish Grammar. 

UNION 

Consists in keeping the leading principle in full view, 
and rendering every other part subservient to that. Sen- 
tences and discourses should be formed on the same plan ; 
for a sentence is but a discourse in miniature. 

Rule. So arrange and combine the matters, constitut- 
ing the discourse, that while the leading triat shall be kepi 
obvious, every other part, though important and com- 
plete in itself, shall prove auxiliar to the predominant prin- 
ciple. 

* When we wish to emphasize we may repeat ; not otherwise* 



HARMONY — STRENGTH — EUPHONY. 293 

HARMONY 

Consists in giving a just proportion and symmetry to a 
sentence or discourse. 

Rule. Assume, as the basis of the discourse, that which 
is either admitted without proof, or that which is capable 
of being proved, and so arrange and unite the parts of the 
sentence or discourse, that, like a properly constructed 
building, its weightier matters shall rest, for support, on the 
more substantial parts of the substructure or foundation ; 
that every part, perfect and proportioned, in itself, shall 
be so united with the predominant trait, as to form a just 
proportion of the whole fabric ; and thereby give to the 
sentence or discourse, 

STRENGTH ; 

Which is the result of the combined influence of Per- 
spicuity, Precision, Purity, Fullness, Propriety, Union, 
and Harmony ; while this, with 

EUPHONY, 

Which must be very carefully regarded; and which, 
consisting in that pleasing variety, and flow of the sound 
with the sentiment, produced by a selection of words, 
whose sounds, when separate, and when combined, are in 
unison with their ideas, constitute, finally, the whole dis- 
course, with its complete component parts, like a noble 
river ; whose main channel, deep, comprehensive, clear, 
whose breadth and depth, whose foaming rapids, bound- 
ing cataracts, and placid flow; each with its dreadful roar, 
its volleying thunder, or its ripling melody; whose over- 
hanging rocks, whose shaded banks and verdant lawns ; 
whose origin, tendency, and termination, are each, in turn, 
and all, at last, beheld. 

Note. However near perfection a sentence or discourse may be when 
otherwise formed, if it is not constructed according to the principles of 
euphony, it is, at best, imperfect. Poetry must, to be perfect, have the 
words arranged according to the principles of rhetoric above given ; and 
prose, to be perfect, must have, exercised, the same regard to the accent 
of syllables, emphasis of words, and the number of their syllables, which 
it is necessary we should have in poetry. In short, make your poetry 
the perfection of prose ; and give your prose, the life, beauty, and eu- 
phony of poetry. 

25* 



294 PLAN ON A DISCOURSE, 



« PLAN OF A DISCOURSE. 

[Asi a general sample, I here introduce the unanimous Declaration of 
the Independence of the United States of America, made July 4th, 
1776. This of course can only be a general plan, to be followed only as 
far as the principles and character of discourses will allow. I have an- 
other aim in its introduction ; and that is, to furnish, to every fireside, 
a knowledge of the causes that separated United States, ( then as colonies) 
from their political connexion with, and dependence on, Great Britain. 
While considered as a literary production, merely, it has few equals ; as 
a State Paper it stands unrivalled in the annals of the world. 

ORDER 

First; Offer the preliminary or introductory remarks, 
that serve to prepare the mind for perceiving the charac- 
ter of the address. These should be very simple, pointed, 
and brief; with the least possible reference, by the speaker 
or writer, to himself. Thus, 

1. " When, in the course of human events, it becomes 
necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands 
which have connected them with another, and to assume, 
among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal sta- 
tion, to which the laws of Nature and of Nature's God en- 
title them ; a decent respect to the opinions of mankind re- 
quires that they should declare the causes whicli impel them 
to the separation." 

Secondly ; State the position, or describe the premises, 
as,. 

2. "We hold these truths to be self-evident : that all men 
are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator 
with certain inalienable rights ; that among these, are life, 
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure 
these rights, governments are instituted, among men, de* 
riving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; 
that whenever any form of government becomes destruc- 
tive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or 
to abolish it; and to institute a new government, laying its 
foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers 
in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect 
their safety and happiness. 



PLAN OF A DISCOURSE. 295 

Thirdly ; Having stated the principles on which you are 
to build your discourse; by a few plain and pertinent re- 
marks, prepare the hearer's mind for proceeding with you 
to the analysis of the subject, the producing of facts, or the 
investigation and comparison of them, and to the argu- 
ments relating to them, as, 

"Prudence, indeed, will dictate, that governments, long 
established, should not be changed for light and trivial 
causes ; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown, that 
mankind are more disposed to. suffer, while evils are suf- 
ferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms 
to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of 
abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same ob- 
ject, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despot- 
ism ; it is their right; it is their duty, to throw off such go- 
vernment, and to provide new guards for their future secu- 
rity. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colo- 
nies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them 
to alter their former system of government. The history 
of the present king of Great Britain, is a history of repeat- 
ed injuries and usurpations; all having, in direct object, 
the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. 
To prove this, let facts be submitted tp_a candid world." 

Fourthly ; State the facts ; bring forth your proof, if ne- 
cessary, and fully investigate the facts; fiist, separately, 
and then, if necessary, combine them for exhibiting the 
result, as, 

3. " He has refused his assent to laws, the most whole- 
some and necessary for the public good. 

4. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of im- 
mediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their 
operation, till his assent should be obtained ; and when so 
suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He 
has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of 
large districts of people, unless those people would relin- 
quish the tight of representation in the legislature ; a right, 
inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 

5. He has called together legislative bodies at places 
unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the the reposi- 



296 PLAN OF A DISCOURSE. 

tory of their public records ; for the purpose of fatiguing 
them into compliance with his measures. 

6. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, 
for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasion of the 
rights of the people. 

7. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolu- 
tions, to cause others to be elected ; whereby the legisla- 
tive powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to 
the people at large, for their exercise, the state remaining, 
in the mean time, exposed to all the dangers of invasion 
from without, and convulsions within. 

8. He has endeavoured to prevent the population of 
these states ; for that purpose obstructing the laws for na- 
turalization of foreigners ; refusing to pass others to encou- 
rage their migration hither ; and raising the conditions of 
new appropriations of land. 

9. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by 
refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary 
powers. 

10. He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for 
the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of 
their salaries. 

11. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent 
hither swarms of officers, to harass our people, and eat out 
their substance. 

12. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing 
armies, without the consent of our legislatures. 

13. He has affected to render the military, independent 
of, and superior to, the civil power. 

14. He has combined with others to subject us to a juris- 
diction, foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by 
our laws ; giving his assent to their acts of pretended le- 
gislation : 

15. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among 
us : 

16. For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punish- 
ment, for any murders which they should commit on the 
inhabitants of these states : 

17. For cutting off our trade with all parts of the 
world : 

18. For imposing taxes on us without our consent: 



PLAN OF A DISCOURSE. 297 

19. For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of 
the trial by jury : 

20. For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pre- 
tended offences : 

21. For abolishing the free system of English laws in a 
neighboring province, establishing theiein an arbitrary go- 
vernment, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it 
at once* an example and fit instrument, for introducing the 
same absolute rule into these colonies: 

22. For taking away our charters ; abolishing our most 
valuable laws ; and altering, fundamentally, the forms of 
our government : 

23. For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring 
themselves invested with power to legislate for us, in all 
cases whatsoever. 

24. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us 
out of his protection, and waging war against us. 

25. He has plundered our seas; ravaged our coasts; burnt 
our-towns ; and destroyed the lives of our people. 

26. He is at this time transporting large armies of fo- 
reign mercenaries, to complete the work of death, deso- 
lation, and tyranny, already begun, with circumstances of 
cruelty and perfidy, scarcely paralleled in the most barba- 
rous ages; and totally unworthy the head of a civilized 
nation. 

27. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken cap- 
tive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, 
to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, 
or to fall themselves by their hands. 

28. He has excited domestic insurrections among us, and 
has endeavoured to bring on\ the inhabitants of our fron- 
tiers, the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of 
warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sex- 
es, and conditions." 

Fifthly ; Make what remark shall be necessary in pros- 
pect of the conclusion. 

29. " In every stage of these operations, we have peti- 
tioned for redress in most humble terms ; our repeated pe- 
titions have been answered by repeated injury. 

30. A prince, whose character is thus marked by every 

* Wrong. It should be at the same time. t It should be upon. 



298 PLAN OF A DISCOURSE. 

act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a 
free people. 

31. Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our Bri- 
tish brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of 
attempts, by their legislature, to extend an unwarrantable 
jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the cir- 
cumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We 
have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and 
we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kin- 
dred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably 
interrupt our connexions and correspondence. They, too, 
have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consan- 
guinity." 

Sixthly ; Give the conclusion as, 

" We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which 
denounces our separation ; and hold them, as we hold the 
rest of mankind, enemies in war ; in peace, friends/' 

Lastly, the appeal* 

" 32. We, therefore, the representatives of the United 
States of America, in general Congress assembled, appeal- 
ing to the Supreme Judge of the world, for the rectitude 
of our intentions; do, in the name, and by the authority of 
the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and 
declare, that these United Colonies are, and of right* ought 
to be, free and independent states : that they are absolved 
from all allegiance to the British crown ; and that all politi- 
cal connexion between them and the state of Great Britain, 
is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and 
independent states, they have full power to levy war, con- 
clude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce ; and to 
do all other acts and things which independent states may, 
of right, do. And for the support of this declaration, with 
a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we 
mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and 
oui sacred honours." 

JOHN HANCOCK, President^ 

* Ought to be, includes right, as well as obligation — " of right" then is 
tautological. 
t From Mass. 



SIGNATURES. 299 

New Hampshire — Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Mat- 
thew Thornton. 

Massachusetts Bay*—^ Samuel Adams, John Adams, Ro- 
bert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. 

Rhode Island, and Providence Plantations^ — Stephen 
Hopkins, William Ellery. 

Connecticut — Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, Wil- 
liam Williams, Oliver Wolcott. 

New York — William Floyd, Phillip Livingston, Francis 
Lewis, Lewis Morris. 

New Jersey — Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, 
Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham 
Clark. 

Pennsylvania — Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin 
Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, 
James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, 
George Ross. 

Delaware — Cesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas M'Kean. 

Maryland — Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, 
Charles Carroll, of Carrolton. 

Virginia — George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas 
Jefferson, \ Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nel- 
son, jr., Francis LightfootLee, Carter Brax- 
ton. 

North Carolina — William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John 
Penn. 

South Carolina — Edward Rutledge, Thomas Hayward, jr., 
Thomas Lynch, jr., Arthur Middleton. 

Georgia — Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. 

* Including Mass. and the Province, now the State, of Maine. 
t Now the State of Rhode Island. 
X The Author of the Declaration. 



300 FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

Part 2. 

Figures of Rhetoric, rules fcr their use, &c. "* 
Those varieties of representation which are, in Rhetoric, 
called figures, are eleven in number; Simile, Contrast or 
Antithesis, Reversion or Metonomy, Personification, In- 
terrogation, Irony, Hyperbole, Imagery or Vision, Apos- 
trophe, Exclamation, and Climax. 

SIMILE 

Treats of the resemblance of things in their design, 
character, or effects. It is divided into three parts, Com- 
parison, Metaphor and Allegory. 

Comparison is used to show the quality or character of 
one object by exhibiting its resemblance to another which 
is well known; as, "How sweet are tly words to my 
taste ! They are sweeter than honey in the honey comb." 
"The righteous man flourishes like a tree planted by the 
rivers of water." " Jerusalem shall be like a vine." 
" The wilderness shall blosom like the rose." 

Rule. Never compare objects whose resemblance in 
form, action, character or effect, is not obvious at the first 
glance of the mind. [Comparing things whose resem- 
blance is not obvious, always tends to weaken, rather than 
strengthen, the expression.] 

A Metaphor consists in the use of one thing for the re- 
presentation of another whose character or effect is strik- 
ingly similar ; as Washington was the centre column of 
American independence. 

The soul, on earth, is an immortal guest, 

Compelled to starve at an unreal feast ; 

A spark, that upward tends, by Nature's force ; 

A stream, diverted from its parent source; 

A drop, dissevered from the boundless sea ; 

A moment, parted from eternity ; 

A pilgrim, panting for the rest to come ; 

An exile, anxious for his native home. 

H. More. 

Rule 1. Never use a metaphor which does not exhibit 
something as strikingly similar in its character or effect, 
to that which it is brought to illustrate. 



SIMILE — CONTRASt. 301 

Rule 2. Never blend a literal and a metaphorical ex- 
pression ; or use two metaphors of a different character irt 
the same expression ; as, 

Trothal went forth with the stream of his people; but 
they met a rock; for Fingal stood unmoved. Broken, they 
rolled baek from his side. Nor did they roll in safety ; for 
the sptar of the king pursued them. — Ossian. 

[Here, the spear of the king (literal) represented as pursuing the 
waves (metaphorical) seems perfectly ridiculous.] 

I bridle in my struggling muse with pain 

Which longs to launch into a bolder strain. — Addison. 

Here, by a mixed metaphor, the muse is represented, first, as a horse t 
(a most clumsy figure at best,) and next, and immediately afterwards, to 
carry out that figure, as a ship, and that ship, by ^personification, in a 
situation not to be allowed, represented as a person longing to do some- 
thing, even while regarded as a ship. 

An Allegory is a continued metaphor, or a narration 
of some event or matter which has a resemblance in all 
its bearings and dependencies to the one which it is brought 
to illustrate ; as, " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt ; 
thou hast cast out the heathen,* and planted it. Thou 
preparedst room before it ; and didst cause it to take root ; 
and it filled the land — ." The parables of the New Testa- 
ment, Esop's Fables, and such writings, are allegories. 

Rule. Never use an allegory which does not repre- 
sent a matter, that, in its connections, has a clear assimi- 
larity to the subject which is to be illustrated by it, or blend 
an allegorical and a literal expression. 

CONTRAST, OR ANTITHESIS, 

Is placing in opposite lights, objects which are really 
dissimilar, that the effect to be produced by contemplating 
their qualities, may be heightened. We compare things 
which are similar ; we contrast things that are unlike or 
dissimilar. We compare purple and red; we contrast 
black and white. Other examples. The wicked are over- 
thrown and are not ; but the house of the righteous shall 
stand. The sacrifice of the wicked is an abomination to 
the Lord ; but the prayer of the pure, is his delight. — 
Bible. 

* " The heathen," here used literally, is a defect in the figure : for the 
heaXhen are represented as being cast out, to make room for the vine I 

26 



302 METONOMY PERSONIFICATION. 

"Where once were seen the graves of their fathers; 
where blazed their council fires ; now stand our halls of 
science, and temples dedicated to the worship of the 
living God. Where once was heard the Indian war whoop; 
where rose the wild shout of savage triumph, over the 
burning anguish of the helpless victims of their fiend-like 
torture ; now are chanted, in tones of moving sweetness, 
songs of Christian fellowship and love ; the soul-reviving 
sound of Hosanna, to the Son of David ! Blessed is he 
that cometh in the name of the Lord !' " 

[Extract from extemporaneous remarks of the Rev. Geo. Peck, on the 
subject of American Indian Missions.] 

REVERSION, OR METONOMY, 

Is so reversing words as to use the name of one thing, 
while we mean another connected with it ; as, putting the 
cause for the effect, the container for the thing contained, 
the author for his work ; as, "Which dish do you prefer ?" 
[meaning the food of which dish?] Jackson was the sal- 
vation of New Orleans. The chair gave the casting vote. 
The president convened both houses of Congress. The 
city was alarmed. The country was aroused, 

PERSONIFICATION 

Is giving, in imagination, life, reason, and action, to in- 
animate objects ; as, 

Eternal Hope : when yonder spheres sublime, 
Peal'd their first notes to sound the march of Time ; 
Thy joyous youth began ; but not to fade, 
When all the sister planets have decayed. 

Campbell. 

Rule 1. Whenever objects are personified use the 
substitutes (when any are to be used) which are applicable 
to persons ; and in addressing an object, personified, write 
the name with a capital letter. 

Rule 2. Never, in any circumstances, personify a 
part of man's physical organization or structure, although 
the mind or soul may be a fit subject of personification. 



INTERROGATION. 303 

INTERROGATION 

Is a mode of expression used to give force to sentiment 
concerning which the interrogation is made; to impress 
more deeply its truth or impossibility ; as, " Shall not the 
Judge of all the earth do right !" " hhall he that contend- 
eth wrth the Almighty instruct him?" "Hast thou an 
arm like God's? and canst thou thunder like him?" 

Rule. Never use this figure, and leave the question 
unanswered, except in very spirited discussion, and on a 
subject of the truth or impossibility of which, the hearer 
or reader can not have any doubt. 

IRONY 

Is saying one thing and meaning the reverse of what 
that expression would represent; or saying, by way of 
ridicule, what we do not design or desire to have believed, 
literally; but only regarded more carefully by having the 
character of the subject of the remark, contrasted as it is, 
with what it must have been, to make the ironical expres- 
sion literally true ; as, when speaking of the miser, we 
say, " What a generous-hearted, philanthropic man ! 
What a. friend to the poor !" 

Rule. Never use an ironical expression in such, a 
manner as to leave any doubt in the mind of the hearer or 
reader-, of its havir.!T b~S" intends'' nc? ironical. 

HYPERPOLE 

Consists in magnifying an object or event, by carrying 
the expression beyond what can be really true ; as, 

" Her step is like an earthquake's tread ; 
Her voice, the trump of Gabriel's sound." 

[An invalid's remark, to his nurse, of a woman who en- 
tered, with a heavy step and masculine voice, the room 
below the one in which he was lying.] 

Rule. Never bring objects to magnify the one that is, 
or that is connected with, the subject of remark, which 
have not a real similarity to that, as far as the reality ex- 
tends. 

IMAGERY, OR VISION, 

Consists in representing distant objects or former events 
as though existing or occurring before our eyes,. 



304 APOSTROPHE EXCLAMATION CLIMAX. 

Examples. He lies full low, gored with wounds, and 
festering in his own blood. But he lies in peace. He 
feels none of the miseries which rend my soul with agony 
and distraction, while I am set up, a spectacle to all man- 
kind, of the uncertainty of human affairs. — Adherbal, to 
the Roman Senate, concerning the murder of his brother. 

The unhappy man, arrested while preparing to embark 
for his native country, is brought before the wicked praetor. 
With eyes darting fury, and a countenance distorted with 
cruelty, he orders the hapless victim of his rage to be 
stripped, and rods to be brought ; accusing him, but with- 
out the least shadow of evidence, or even of suspicion; of 
having come to Sicily as a spy.— Cicero against Verres. 

Rule. [For this figure, and the next two.] Never use 
the figure except when the mind of the hearer or reader 
shall have been prepared for the stronger exercises of 
sympathy. Be particularly careful to guard against its 
frequent use* 

APOSTROPHE 

Consists in addressing absent objects as though they 
were really present : as, O, murdered, butchered, brother t 
O, dearest to my heart ! now gone for ever from my sight, 
Adherbal to the Roman Senate. 

44 O Absalom ! my son, my son ! would to God I had 
died for thee/* [Hee the last rule above.] 

exclamation 
Is a figure u&ed to express the strong emotions of the 
mind, which cannot be described ; as, O the depth of the 
riches, both of the wisdom and goodness of God ! 44 O 
glorious hope ! O bless'd abode !" [See the last rule 
above.] 

CLIMAX 

Is such an arrangement of the parts of a discourse, which 
we wish to exhibit in a strong light, as shall gradually, and 
successively, heighten the subject or train of events to the 
very summit of representation ; that it may wield its full 
influence; and sink, if sinking is designed, with the weight 
and force of a mountain cataract, or an ocean wave; as, 
" Let not the British ministry press too far upon our na- 
tural and admitted rights. Let them observe the extent of 



GENERAL HINTS. 305 

colonial forbearance ; and mark well the intelligence of 
the people, and the spirit of the age. Let the fate of fallen 
tyrants teach them prudence. Caesar had his Brutus ; 
Charles the First, his Cromwell ; and George the Third" 
[here "Treason /" "treason /" was vociferated by the pre- 
sident of the assembly. "Treason!" "treason!" was 
sounded from different parts of the house. When the 
shout was ended, he, P. Henry, with a loftier attitude and 
look, and with a more determine dfire, concluded with] 
" may profit by their example. If this is treason, make 
the most of it !" 

All governments must have an end. In the lapse of 
time this republic may perish : but that time, I trust, is 
far distant ; and when it shall arrive, it should come in 
glory, not in shame. Greece had her Chseronea; Rome, her 
Pharsalia ; and this republic, more illustrious in her birth, 
than either Greece or Rome, should have a death as glo- 
rious as theirs. She should not die by poison ; perish by 
corruption. No ! A field of arms and glory, should be 
her end. She has a right to a battle ; a contest, great and 
immortal, where patriots and heroes can die with the 
liberty which they shall scorn to survive; and consecrate, 
with their blood, the spot that shall mark a nation's 
fall. — T. H. Benton. 

General Hints. 

Studiously avoid, in composition, style, or manner, any 
thing that can be suspected, as an attempt at pomp, or os- 
tentation. 

Be sparing of your figures of ornament : be careful in 
those of illustration. 

Seek, first, to enliven, rather than arouse,your audience : 
to engage, inform, and convince ; and by conviction, 
chiefly, to affect those whom you address. 

Study dignity, without affectation ; ease, and simplicity, 
without vulgarity. 

Expect not that your audience can easily be transported ; 
or kept long in transport, after having been raised : and be 
very careful not to let those whom you address, see you 
excited, before they shall have the glow of feeling, them- 
selves. 

Chill not by your coldness, or deaden by your languor ; 

26* 



300 GENERAL HINTS, 

disgust not by an overheated imagination, or an unwar- 
rantable enthusiasm in which you must not expect that your 
audience will participate. Be earnest, yet not ardent. 

As facts and proof, in litigation, are most important; so 
in discourse, facts admitted or proved, and the right con- 
clusions are all important to him who discourses on any 
subject. Use not argument without some ornament. Use 
not ornament without much argument. Avoid com- 
mon sayings. Suspect and never introduce maxims, (whe- 
ther ancient or modern,) whose point and bearing you are 
not able to explain should it be demanded. Remember 
that in maxims, as in form and feature, age can not give 
beauty to deformity, or youth, vigor to constituted weak- 
ness or infirmity. 

Treat not your audience as though its members were 
incapable of judging; or as though they must understand 
as well as yourself, the subject upon which you have be- 
stowed much, they, perhaps, but little, attention. [If this 
is not fact, why should you speak at all?] Without some 
confidence in yourself you may inspire pity ! but can not 
respect. With arrogance, haughtiness, or ostentation, as 
your characteristic, expect disgust and aversion. With- 
out full confidence in the importance of your subject, and 
the tenability of your position, expect distrust or incredu- 
lity in your audience. 

Do not divide your discourse into different heads or 
parts, numbering them in order, except when the subject 
shall be such, that it must appear first in separate distinct 
parts, to render plain their union in forming a combination 
as a whole. In a young man, this dividing and arranging 
is always suspected as parade or ostentation ; in an old 
man, it is suspected as a design for giving an unnatural 
dignity to either the speaker or the subject. 

Do not insult your audience either by offering what you 
have not previously investigated and prepared to exhibit 
clearly, and defend, r as your own ; or by an opening apol- 
ogy of your inability to do justice to the subject. _ If you 
honestly think yourself inadequate to the accomplishment 
of what is proposed, make no engagement to speak. If 
you find yourself engaged, and afterwards suspect your 
ability; and can not, honorably, withdraw, make little 
apology : for whatever inability you shall show, your au- 
dience will see, without your giving a previous apprisal* 



ADDRESS. 307 

by which (believe it !) critical acumen will be excited 
against you, without any abatement of severity, for your 
having acknowledged your inability. Be industrious in pre- 
paring your facts ; be attentive and systematic, in arrang- 
ing them ; that you may introduce your audience where 
they will see neatness of arrangement, without having seen 
you arranging* 

In attitude or posture be erect, yet not stiff ; in gesture 
natural and easy ; in delivery, distinct, and neither hur- 
ried nor slow ; in feeling strong and full, but not bolster- 
ous ; in look, be earnest ; in manner, mild and pathetic. 

N. B. — Never censure an audience for duln ess or inat- 
tention : Never expect your hearers to understand or 
believe what you find yourself unable to explain. 

Note. For further particulars relative to grammar, see the appendix 
and the chart. 

Address to the Student. 

It is to be hoped that you are pursuing the study of 
your own language, for the sake of the benefit that may 
accrue to yourself and to mankind, from your acquaintance 
with its principles. Study, then, the science, with the ut- 
most care, till you shall have a full, clear, and comprehen- 
sive view of it; of its nature and bearings, and its appli- 
cation to the practical concerns of life. Think before you 
speak ; and arrange, mentally, in grammatical order, the 
words that are to express your ideas, before you shall ut- 
ter them. Follow, in your diction, not one rule of gram- 
mar, to the neglect of any other; but, by study and prac- 
tice, united, make yourself familiar with the whole. Re- 
member, that as no treatise on sword exercise can, alone, 
make a person a good swordsman ; so no theory of gram- 
mar, however near perfection, can, without practice, make 
you a good speaker or writer. Remember, too, that, as 
in moral principle and action, so in the use of language, 
no error is too small to be known and shunned ; no virtue 
or excellence, too inconsiderable or unimportant, to be 
understood and practised. 

Vast as is the globe on which we live, it is formed by 
the combination of the smallest particles of matter. The 
talents and virtues of men, which sometimes shine forth 



308 ADDRESS. 

with dazzling splendor^ are not distinct and separate prin- 
ciples, acting independently, and alone; but are formed 
and sustained by the union and exercise of the humbler 
graces and virtues, which, entering the composition of 
men's characters, constitute them what they appear. No 
person who has only one ennobling trait, and that one, at 
variance with • the rest of his character, should expect to 
shine as a scholar, as a man, or as a philanthropist. 

Look upon yourself and your relations to the world. 
Make a proper estimate of human life, and your own 
abilities. Raise, now, your standard of principle and 
action, while yet you are uncontaminated with the frail- 
ties of the age. Prepare to meet with decision and 
firmness, and to oppose, with energy, the vices, of 
every name and grade, which exert their baleful influence 
on society and the world. Though you may see opportu- 
nities for obtaining, earlier, the object of your toil, by the 
exercise of the low, servile spirit of cunning and intrigue; 
(and thereby preclude the possibility of enjoying the 
possession, by the means used fur its attainment); and 
though others, less scrupulous than yourself, may, for a 
time, seem to outstrip you ; yet, with a loftiness of aim, 
with a magnanimity of sentiment, and correspondent ac- 
tion, which man, however vile, must venerate, and which 
God, himself, approves ; spurn, with contempt, the idea of 
deriving enjoyment from what is unworthily attained. 

Determine within yourself, and unswervingly adhere to 
that determination, that the temple which is the object of 
your ambition, shall never be entered by you, except 
through the path of uniform integrity and usefulness : that 
you will hold in utter disdain all pleasures, however 
fashionable, which are not consistent with man's exalted 
dignity, and the pure principles of Christian morality. 

While you guard yourself from the intrigues of the vile, 
by exercising a proper care for your own interest, in con- 
nexion with the welfare of others, let unbounded philan- 
thropy dilate your heart. Let your motto be — First, my 
God and Country : next, my neighbor and myself— Be 
temperate, be affable, and studious to improve your time; 
be intelligent and virtuous ; be active, useful, and, 
HAPPY. 



APPENDIX, 

"He who can not reason, is a fool: He who will not, is a bigot : He who 
dares not, is a s/at>e /" 

LECTURE I. 

NAMES NOUNS. 

"A noun is a name"— Old grammars. This is the reason why I call it 
a warae ; being solicitous, in science especially, to call things, or represent 
them, just what they are. The simple fact that a noun is a name, is suffi- 
cient reason for my using the latter term to distinguish the part of speech 
that it represents. 

There are, however, several reasons why the term noun, should not 
be used. First, it is a term which to the English student has no mean- 
ing aside from English grammar ; having no application to any thing 
else ; and, secondly, and consequently, when the student of grammar, 
comes to that part of speech he finds the term noun, to him, meaningless, 
a barrier in his pathway, instead of an initiatory means to facilitate his ad- 
vancement 

Instead of being a word (like the term name) whose meaning is well 
known to him, used to make known a., principle to which he is a stranger ; 
the pupil finds the name, itself, unintelligible to him. Instead of finding a 
principle and naming it from its affinity to something already known ; the 
pupil has to take the name of something, find what the name means, and 
then find the class of things to which he is to apply the name ! ! 

Lastly ; the strongest reason why we should not use the term noun, is, 
that we have a better term, or rather, a good term for the tyro in gram- 
mar. As the term noun, to the English student, means nothing ; and 
as the term name, is, to him, already well known, and as well without a 
definition as with one, being applied in grammar, just as in every thing 
else ; the reasons for casting away " noun" and taking "name," are the 
same that would induce a traveller to go in a direct line from place to 
place, instead of a circuitous route — to prefer a steamboat, to the 
floating wreck of an old sloop — a rail-road car, to a truck-wheeled cart, 
and, for speed, a steam locomotive, to an ox-team— an open highway or 
national road, to an Indian trail through a dreary morass. Then as a 
noun is a name I will call it what it is, and proceed. 

IVames are of four sorts ; General, Particular, Collective, and Asser- 
tive. 

The old grammars divide the names into three classes — Common, 
Proper, and Collective. 

According to the sense of the term proper, any name is proper that is 
properly applied— as speaker, the proper name of one who speaks ; writer % 



310 SEX — GENDER. 

the proper name of one who writes ; peach- gatherer, the proper name of 
one who gathers peaches. 

."'A proper noun is the name appropriated to an individual" — Old 
Grammars. 

• Any single thing is an individual ; as, book, head, heart ; the name ap- 
propriated or given to any single tiling, is then a "proper'" name. A book, a 
head, a heart is a single thing — then of course it is an individual, and 
being an individual, its name must consequently be regarded as a prober 
name. These words are "common names, because names of sorts or 
kinds," and " proper names, because names given to individuals. 1 ' Every 
common noun or name in the singular form, is, then, a prober noun. 

Smith says — " A common noun is a general name, 1 '' and "A proper 
noun is a particular name." Right ! Mr. Smith : and I will call them 
both just what they are ; not because you have said they are ; but be- 
cause I find them so ; and am bound to represent matters as they are. 

A collective name is distinguished from a general name, by the fact 
that the general never represents, of itself, that the objects are in a col- 
lection ; while the collective name always represents objects as though in 
a collection. Thus, when I say, I met some soldiers last month ; I do not 
indicate that they were together when I met them. 1 may have met one 
in New York, one in Baltimore, and one in New Orleans : but when I 
say, I met an army ; I represent by the term army, that the soldiers com- 
posing the army, were in a collection or an association when I met them. 

As a collective name denotes a collection of distinct individuals, con- 
sidered independently of fixed locality or of place, the term orchard, 
fruitery, or grove , can not be regarded as a collective name. Each de- 
notes a collection of trees ; but refers as much to the ground on which 
they stand as to the trees themselves ; inasmuch as the trees, taken from 
the ground, could no longer be regarded as an orchard, a fruitery, or a 
grove. 

Collective names, from their nature, can not have the term masculine, 
feminine, or common, applied, for such a term as council does not repre- 
sent the object denoted by it, as a male creature or a female creature; and 
as the name can not be so applied as to denote- that the object is one or the 
other, the term masculine, feminine, common, or neuter needs not be 
applied. * " To nouns belong Gender, Person, Number, and Case." — . 
Old Grammars. 

This is representing that those properties belong to all nouns ; as the 
authors make no exception. 

GENDER. 

"What is Gender] A distinction of nouns with ^regard to sex — M. 
The distinction of sex — K. " Genders" [plural] are modifications that dis- 
tinguish objects in regard to sex — B. " Gender signifies , sex" — S. Gen- 
der is a term which is employed for the distinction of objects with regard 
to sex and species — W. Shake these definitions together in a grammar 

* As a collection taken as one object, has not the quality of sex to be dis- 
tinguished ; collective names are really neuter and that being known to be 
always the fact, the distinctive term needs not be applied. When the indivi- 
duals composing the mass are referred to according to rule XI, page 252, use 
common substitutes. When written according to rule X, page 252, the 
jieuter substitute should represent them. 



SEX — GENDER. 311 

cover, and turn them out ; and you will see something like Kirkham's 
definition — " Gender is the_ distinction of sex" 

How many genders, or sexes distinguished, or distinctions of sex, do old 
grammars give us \ M. and K. give five / and B. S. & W. give four I 

Thus, according to M. and K. we have the masculine gender, denot- 
ing males ; feminine gender, denoting females ; the neuter gender, de- 
noting objects neither male nor female; the \* masculine- and- feminine 
gender," which, if it marks any distinction, must distinguish an object of 
both sexes I and the " masculine-or-feminine gender," which must mean 
(according to the definition of gender) a gender that distinguishes one sex 
or the other, without distinguishing which gender ! 1 1 as,jricnd — parent, 
S. and W. have a " common gender !" that is, a " distinction of sex, com- 
mon" to both sexes ! to males and females : That is, a common distinc- 
tion of sex, or a " distinction of sex," that belongs to both sexes ! ! while 
B., after having denounced the common gender, has, to make his four, 
last gender of which a grammarian ! has heard ; it is " Any gender !" 
That is, (according to his definition of gender,) ** A modification that dis- 
tinguishes an object in regard to any sex /" A great improvement truly ! 
To give the climax, he parses the term us, in the masculine gender ; as, 
in the sentence, " This enterprise will never compensate us for the trou- 
ble, &c." Query — What <k modification" has the word we, or our, or us, 
for distinction of the objects denoted by it, in regard to sex 1 Does the 
term us denote that males are meant 1 No. Does it denote that females 
are meant 1 No. Does it that either sex, exclusively, is meant ] No. 
Does it denote that both males and females are meant] No. The term 
may represent objects that are either male or female : it may repre- 
sent both males and females : but it can never mark in the least imagina- 
ble degree, the distinction between them. Us must, then, be in Brown's 
" Any gender" with the word not prefixed, as " Not-any-gender," for it 
is very obvious that it has no quality or "modification," by which "the 
distinction" of sex, or " objects in regard to it," can be marked. It may 
be in K.'s " neuter gender;" which he says, means, " no- gender," — a 
most singular gender or " distinction of sex," certainly ! Here then, is the 
grand total. Gender being " the distinction of sex," it follows, of course, 
that, as there are but two sexes, there can be but two genders ; yet our 
authors have always given the neuter gender with the masculine and 
feminine, and the common and the masculine- and- f eminine ; the mascu- 
line- ox -feminine, and the " Any gender" of Goold Brown. 

If B.'s definition of " genders 7" is correct, then certainly we can have 
but two genders: for all know, that words have but "modifications" at most, 
" for distinguishing objects in regard to. sex," and not one name of a 
hundred has any modification, in that respect, at all. So that if the others' 
position was not as bad as it can be, B.'s would certainly appear worse. 

Kirkham says, concerning the neuter gender; ''Strictly speaking then, 
as there are but two sexes, nouns have but two genders ; but for the 
sake of practical convenience ! we apply to them three, by calling that a 
gender which is no gender ! Of such names as parent, child, &c, he 
says — " if they are doubtful, they are of the masculine or feminine gen- 
der ! That is, if the gender or distinction is such that you do not know 



312 SEX— PERSON 

what distinction it is, it is of the masculine or feminine distinction," with- 
out ever distinguishing which distinction is distinguished II I 

The sum of grammatical gender is, then, that though there are but two 
sexes to be distinguished ; and, consequently, but two distinctions of 
sex ; and consequently but two genders ; yet our sage authors must, for 
"practical convenience" have the masculine gender and the feminine; 
the common gender, " the mascuiine-an^-feminine ;" and the " mas- 
culine-or-feminine gender ;" besides G. Brown's " Any -gender ; 
Query. What kind of animals must that represent? — and the Neuter- 
gender, which, as Kirkham says, " is no-gender" and as Hull says, " is 
just-no- gender- at- all." Query. What gender, then, is the neuter gen- 
der ? and how many genders do these authors make from the two dis- 
tinctions of the two sexes to be distinguished '? Enough ! Enough ! 

From this most sickening picture of grammatical absurdity let us turn 
to the neatness and simplicity of fact and philosophy. 

A noun is a name. Masculine means, not male, but pertaining to a 
&iale. Feminine means, not female, but pertaining to a female. 

Neuter never means no ; but always refers to opposite parties, and re- 
presents that the object, denoted by the name to which it refers, does not 
belong to either of them. Common refers to something that belongs or 
pertains equally to two or more objects. Then, 

A masculine name is the name of a male, or belonging to a male ; as, 
John ; which word is not a male name, or a male creature ; but the 
name of a male creature. 

A feminine name is the name of a female, or belonging to a female ; as, 
Maria; which word is not a female word, name, or creature, but the name 
of an object that is a female. 

A neuter name is the name of an object which must be regarded as 
neutral in relation to the distinctions marked by the terms masculine 
and feminine, preceding it ; as, apple, the name of an object that is per- 
fectly neutral in relation to sex ; being neither a male nor a female ob- 
ject. 

A common name is a name, not of some property which is common to 
both sexes ; but a name, which, of itself, is the common property of the 
two sexes, a name that may be used to represent an object that is either 
male or female, may be applied to both, but which, of itself can not 
mark any distinction of sex ; can not represent whether a male or 
female is meant ; whether both are meant; or neither exclusively. Here 
is no mysticism — nothing illogical or absurd. See page 31. 

PERSON* 

It is most amusing to see the different definitions given to person' 
grammatically considered. G. Brown's definition is, if possible, worse 
than any other. "Persons [the plural, he says] are modifications 
that distinguish the speaker ; the hearer ; and the person or thing 
merely spoken of." 

According to his definition, names cannot have the distinctions of person 
applied to them at all, for they have no " modification'''' by which the dis- 
tinctions contemplated in reference to person, can he made. Yet, most 

\ 



PERSON. 313 

strange I B. gives to names three persons. I will illustrate. M I, Robert^ 
am the son of Zadok Williams." In this example, B. would parse the 
name Robert, in the first person. Henry said, " Robert, son of Zadok>> 
hear me." In this example, B. would parse the name Robert, in the 
second person. " I saw Robert, son of Zadok, yesterday morning." In 
this example, B. would parse the name Robert, in the third person, while 
yet, we all see that the name Robert has undergone no change or mo- 
dification whatever. 

Then, as " persons are modifications," and as the name admits no mo- 
dification in reference to the distinctions mentioned, there is no reason 
for the application of person to a name at all. 

Kirkham says — " Person is the property of the noun or pronoun, 
which varies the verb" [asserter]. This, of course, renders inert, the 
property called person, except when the name or substitute is taken m 
connexion with the verb or asserter. Yet strange as it may seem he 
proceeds to define the different persons, as though person had no refer- 
ence to the verb or asserter. 

Wright says, " Person comprehends the orderly distinctions of nouns 
and their substitutes !" I have only to say, this must be a very deep re- 
mark, for not a solitary idea in relation to the nature of person is ex- 
pressed by the whole, or any part, of the definition. 

He adds — " To nouns belong two persons, either singular or plural ; 
namely, the second and the third !" 

If this sentence is to be taken according to the import of the words in the 
construction, it must mean, (it can mean nothing else,)that "Two persons, 
either singular or plural persons ; namely, the first and second persons, 
belong to names ! ! This construction expresses exactly the same sense 
that his language expresses. If he means any thing different he may 
be able to tell what he means, and what he intended that his book should 
inculcate. 

Murray and Smith are very prudent men. They stand in this matter, 
unpledged; neither of them having defined what person is. [For the 
definition of Person, see page 34.] 

" Here first person denotes the speaker ;" as, " i" Paul, am an apostle." 
" The second denotes the object spoken to ;" as, " Henry : where have 
you been." 

" The third person denotes the object spoken of." " Old. Gram's., or, 
as B. says, " merely spoken of." 

Exemplification. / am writing. In this sentence the word I is said 
to be in the first person, because denoting the speaker : while, according 
to the old definition of the third person, the word I is just as much a 
word of the third person as of the ^rs7, for it denotes the object, my own 
person, spoken of, as much as any word can do it. When I say I am 
writing, I speak of myself, not to myself; and of myself, not of any other 
person ; and of course I " speak merely of myself." 

The word J, is then, a word of the first person, because denoting the 
speaker ; and a word of the third person, because denoting the person oi 
object spoken of, as much as any word can do it. Yet, viewing the facts 
as they are, how easy it is to describe them. [See page 34.] 

The^r^ person denotes, by one word, the speaker, &c. ; as, John gave 
me an apple, and 1 ate it. Here the words me and / denote that the 

37 



314 NUMBER. 

speaker means himself. The third person denotes, not the speaker ^ 
such, but another object spoken of ; as, John gave mean apple and I ate 
iU Here the words John, apple, and it are of the third person, because 
denoting, not the speaker as such, but other objects spoken of: while the 
terms me and I are of the first person, but not of the third, for the third 
person denotes not the speaker, but another object ; and as the terms me 
and I denote not an object that " is not the speaker," but an object that 
is ; they can not be of tbe third person. 

B. appropriates three persons to names, because they may be used in 
such a manner that the substitute meaning the same object, may repre- 
sent that the object, denoted by the name, is, in fact, the speaker ; and 
exemplifies with "X, Paul, &c." 

I think I have shown, already, that according to B 's definition of per- 
son it can never be applied to names : but waiving that, let us examine. 
Which word of the two used in the expression, I, Paul, indicates that 
the speaker means himself] The term I. The word Paul, or any other 
name can not do it. Take out the term I, and see if the name Paul, 
alone, can indicate that the speaker is meant. It can not. Then the 
name, though meaning the same object that is denoted by the word I, 
can not be of the first person ; for the name does not, can not, of itself, 
denote that the speaker means himself. 

Besides, if the name Paul, as here used, is to be regarded as of the 
first person, because it is the name of the person that is denoted by the 
word 2, as the speaker ; then in Paul's description of his trance, where 
he says, " I knew a certain man, whether in the body or without the body 
I can not tell ;" the name man, though as fully of the third person as 
any word can be ; must, nevertheless^ according to B.'s position, be of 
the first person, because denoting a person who was (though it did not 
represent him as) the person speaking. 

In Person, then, it is seen there are other barriers in the pathway of 
the pupil ; while, according to the distinctions as given on page 32, the 
path is straight and clear ; and the principles and the mode of exhibiting 
ihem ? are without exception, 

NUMBER. 

Here is another wall raised across the pathway of the pupil ; and, 
unless he will throw aside his reasoning faculties, and become a goat, to 
scramble over it, he must stop. Philosophy and reason always have a 
straight path, and one which, when found, has no barriers interposed. 

Number is the consideration of an object, as one, or more. — M. 

Number is the distinction of objects, as one or more. — K. 

" Numbers " [still pluralizing the abstract distinctive term,] are modi- 
fications that distinguish unity and plurality. — B. 

Number means a sum that may be counted ! — £. 

«« Number " [not telling what it is,] is of a twofold nature — Singular 
and Plural : comprehending according-/?/ / to its application, the distinc- 
tion between !" — W. 

After all this, the term number, though it may be the medium used in 
distinguishing between amounts or sums, or to mark or describe the 
difference between one, and more than one, is not the property of nouns 
and pronouns [names and substitutes] ; for they are distinguished 



feASE. 315 

with respect to number, by their forms, which mark the only difference 
in that respect that can be made by names and substitutes. 

Thus, of the name book, I should say it is in the singular form ; the 
form which denotes that a single object is meant. I should not say, [I 
could not properly], as others do, that that the name book is in the singu- 
lar number : that is, according to M., " in the singular consideration of 
objects, as one or more :" that is, according to K., * in the distinction of 
objects as one or more ; that is, according to B , in the singular modi- 
fication of a noun or name that distinguishes unity and plurality : [there 
is no modification in the name book, it is the first form of the word :] 
that is, according to S., " in the singular sum that may be counted :" 
that is, " according-/^ !" to W., in the singular of a twofold nature, Sin- 
gular and plural ; and comprehends according-/^ ! to its application the 
distinction between ! 

Is it not seen that if the pupil shall venture to think, and endeavor to 
take the individual parts and. put them together to form a whole ; he will 
find nothing but inconsistency and absurdity, while taking the plain path 
of fact the matter stands so that there can not be anything incongruous 
or obscure. Thus book is a name in the singular form, the form which 
denotes that a single object is meant. Books is in the plural form ; the 
form which denotes that plurality is meant. See pages 34 — 42. 

CASE 

Is defined as variously as Person or Number. For a correct definition 
of it according to fact, see page 42. 

The old grammars have cases so named and applied, that a pupil can 
not have a clear view of them. 

The first named case is the " Nominative." 

If the term nominative has any meaning, it must be, " giving, denoting, 
or pertaining or belonging to a name." Then, according to this, every 
name, no matter how used, must be in the nominative case, because the 
case denoting, giving or pertaining to (being) the appellation by w r hich 
the object is known. Thus, John's book covered his face. Here, ac- 
cording to the meaning of the term nominative, John, book, and face, are 
names in the nominative case ; relating, belonging, denoting, or giving 
the names or terms by which the objects are known. 

Accordng to the meaning of the term nominative, no pronoun (substi- 
tute) can ever be in the nominative. u The nominative case is, or de- 
notes, the agent or subject of the verb'' [asserter]. — Old Grams. This 
can never be. The verb or asserter has no subject ; can not have a sub- 
ject. There may be a subject of remark, or conversation, but not the 
subject of a verb or asserter. "James went home last night. " Here 
the name James denotes the person who is the subject ; yet that person 
is not the subject of the word went ; but the subject of the remark that I 
made, the person concerning whom I spoke. 

Then, because the word, thus used, with only an asserter, constitutes 
a remark and represents the person denoted by it, as being the subject 
of that remark, I call that case of a word, the subjective ; that is, the case 
in which a word is used to denote the subject of remark. When only 
words enough to constituted sentence, are taken, the word on which the 



816 CASE. 

asserter or verb depends for its sense, it is said to be in the subjective 
case, because, denoting the person or thing that is the subject of the 
speech, narrative, or remark. 

This case is named, in this work, on the same principle with the pos- 
sessive, which denotes the possessor } as, John's book : and the objective? 
denoting the object ; as, I struek the table. I spoke to John. 

The old grammars make the chief principle, constituting the nominative 
case, to be, that " it is the subject of the verb" [asserter,] Then there 
can be no nominative case, unless it has a verb or asserter : and to use 
the term " nominative case independent," or a nominative without, 
a verb or asserter, when they say that the nominative is the subject of a 
verb ; is, to introduce a contradiction in terms — a perfect absurdity : like 
one Sol. Barrett, jr.'s grammar! That author says that there can not 
be a verb [asserter] without a nominative [a subjective word], and says 
also that "a verb or asserter in the infinitive [unlimited] mode has no 
nominative, which would, of course, preclude the possibility of its being a 
verb at all. Yet, this modern Solomon ! after having said that " there 
can not be a verb, without a nominative ;" and after having asserted that, 
"a verb in the infinitive mode is without a nominative," has the assur- 
ance to pretend that the verb in the infinitive mode is y notwithstanding, a 
verb ! although without a nominative ! 

So these writers assert that " the nominative case is the subject of 
the verb," and, at the same time, talk of a " nominative case indepen- 
dent :" or without the verb : although having a verb as its dependence,. 
is what makes the nominative case ! Grammar logic ! 

That a word may be used in an independent situation, considered with 
respect to the verb or asserter, is true : and when it is thus used without a 
dependent verb or asserter, it is independent : yet, according to their 
definition of the nominative case, it can not be nominative at all. [See 
the definition of the independent case, page 43.] 

In the lecture on the Asserter or verb, I show that the old nominative 
case Absolute! is perfectly inconsistent with the definition of the nomina- 
tive case ; and totally at variance with fact : as I there show that the 
•'participle" is as much a. verb as the verb itself; and, of course, if there 
is such a thing or principle, as the nominative case, the nominative case 
absolute is purely and wholly — fully — the "nominative ease," having 
nothing absolute in connexion with it. 

With respect to the " nominative independent" I must remark still fur- 
ther. When I say " John ; hand me your book," these writers pretend 
that the name John is independent of the verb — in the " nominative case 
independent." Why 1 Because, they say, the word thou is " understood!" 
before the word hand ; making it necessary, for the grammatical com- 
pletion of the sentence, that it should stand " John ; hand thou to me 
your book : or John ; do thou hand to me thy book ; or John ; do thou 
hand thy boo , or your book to me." 

Here let me ask — If the verb or asserter ever depends on a word in 
the subjective or nominative case, does it not depend on the name John ? 
as John ; hand me your book. If the word hand does depend on the 
name John ; there is no need of putting the word thou. If it does not ; 
then, truly, it is ungrammatical to say " John ; hand me your book," and 
as we should always speak grammatically, we should speak in this man- 



CASE. 317 

ner — John ; do thou hand to me your book ; or, your book to me ! Henry, 
go thou to home ! " George, do thou rise early in the morning if you 
would ensure health and cheerfulness. These sentences, worse than 
vulgarly bungling ; so much so, that no well bred man would ever be 
guilty of speaking them ; are perfectly grammatical if the old doctrine 
of the " nominative independent" is correct: for these very sentences 
are, as they must be, transformed, to be made parsable, or grammatical, 
according to the old theories — the old grammars ! Away ! Away ! ! Ye 
intermeddlers in good language ! ye spoilers of elegant diction ; and let 
me still say '« John ; hand me your book." Henry ; go home. George ; 
rise early in the morning if you would ensure health and cheerfulness. 
Pupil ; prefer [not " prefer thou"] being right ; though alone ; to being 
xcrong with the multitude. 

When I say John writes a letter ; all admit that the word write depends 
on the name John, as a nominative or subjective word : yet that depends 
on the name John, no more than the word write in this example — " John ; 
write a letter." If thou is to come between the name John and the as- 
serter write — as John, thou write, to make the grammatical construction 
complete ; the word he should in the prior example come between the 
name John and the asserter writes ; as, John ; he writes. 

Mark this. If the old "grammars /" are grammars ; then the sen- 
tences, John, hand me your book. — Henry ; go home. — George, rise; are 
ungrammatical and must be made as before transformed. If the old 
grammars ! are not grammars ; then we may still use good language 
without condemnation. If there is a disagreement between a geography 
and the country which it professes to represent or describe ; shall we 

CONDEMN THE COUNTRY, BECAUSE IT DOES NOT AGREE WITH GEOGRAPHY] 
OR CONDEMN THE BOOK, FOR ITS NOT BEING A GEOGRAPHY FOR NOT GIVING 

a description of the country ] If the old theories do not inculcate 
good principles ; or the use of good language ; shall we follow them and 
discard good language'? or shall we use good language, and discard 
false-grammars — -pretended grammars I books or theories found from the 
examination of their principles, to be (like Kirkham's neuter gender) 
just-no-grammar s-at- all ! See synthetical rule XIX, part 2, page 254. 

If Murray, Kirkham, G. Brown, Smith, and Wright — the whole of the 
old grammar corps, will admit that the sentence — "John, hand me your 
book" is correct ; according to their theories ; I will, from the self-same 
principles, prove every sentence than has been, or ever will be, spoken 
or written, perfectly grammatical. If they will prove by the principles 
of their books that the sentence — " I hant never ben unable not to find 
no grammars from what I couldn't never learn nothing from it at all !" is 
incorrect ; I will prove! by the self-same principle, that the following 
sentences are equally incorrect — Henry and John respect each other. 
They use one another's books. God said, " Let there be light." Henry ; 
go home. James is ten years old. William ; tender my compliments 
to your cousin. I will also prove on the same principle, that three 
fourths of the language used by the most learned of the country is most 
grossly ungrammatical. 

If the above awkward sentence — " 1 hant never, &c." is ungram- 
matical because not in accordance with their rules of grammar ; the sen-* 
tences last above written in exemplification are ungrammatical for th# 

27* 



318 POSS. CASE OF NAMES. 

same reason : and almost all of the best language has been or can be used 
must come under their condemnation, for who dares pretend (who would 
not blush to acknowledge) that he speaks and writes according to rules 
of these authors for the grammatical construction of words. If these 
authors will pretend that the sentence " John ; hand me your book ;" 
and the like are grammatical ; because when transformed 7 the transfor- 
mation can be parsed — then no sentence that ever has been, or ever will 
be, used, can be considered ungrammatical — for any sentence can be 
transformed ; and its transformation can be parsed. 

If they are allowed to take a good sentence [as John ; hand me your 
book] and spoil it by transforming it [John ; thou hand tome your book ; 
or John, do thou to me hand your book, or John, do thou hand your book 
to me] and call it grammatical ! before its transformation ; because after- 
wards, when spoiled, (as no man would ever speak it) it can be parsed ; 
I, certainly, may be allowed to take a bad sentence, and make it, (by 
transformation,) a good one, and call it grammatical before its tranfor- 
mation, because when transformed and improved I can parse it. 

If they may take the sublime sentence, God said— u Let there be 
light," (in every respect, full and perfect,) and call it grammatical be- 
cause they can change it to— God said, " Do thou let there to be light," — > 
" or Do thou let there light to be ! I" and parse it when thus changed, 
[emphatically and truly, from the " sublime, to the ridiculous,"} I may 
take the sentence — " I hant never ben unable to find no grammars from 
what I couldn't never learn nothing from it at all," and call it gram- 
matical ; because I can parse it when changed to — " I have not been 
able to find a grammar from which I could learn any thing." Men of 
sense ; and men of science ; are these things sol 

POSSESSIVE CASE OF NAMES " NOUNS." 

M. says the possessive expresses the relation of property or posses- 
sion ; and has an apostrophe with the letter s coming after it ; as, the 
Scholar's duty : my father's house. [It does not express relation of, but 
to, property or possession. While in these remarks I name Murray ; I 
mean, equally, all his satellites, B , K., S., W., and the rest of the shoot- 
ing stars.] "Has an apostrophe with the letter s coming after it." 

From this expression to which the whole of the old grammarians as- 
sert ; the pupil must infer that the apostrophe (') and s are always the 
sign of the possessive case. From what follows, he will be able to learn 
that there are exceptions ; yet it is utterly impossible to know what 

ALL THE EXCEPTIONS ARE. 

" When the plural end in s the other & is omitted but the apostrophe 
is retained ; as, on eagles' wings, the drapers' company." Here is one 
exception : but mark what follows, and see the uncertainty introduced 
by the use of the word " sometimes." " Sometimes also when the sin- 
gular ends in ss, the apostrophic ss is not added ; as, For goodness' 
sake : For righteousness' sake." 

"Sometimes is not added" — of course, then, sometimes it is added, 
and this leaves the pupil without any possible direction in relation to 
the matter : because he can not tell when the " some times" are. 

Their rule is, to use the apostrophic s always when the word is in 



POSS. CASE OF NAMES. 319 

the singular form does not end with ss and when in the plural it does 
not end with s : yet they note exceptions to the former whether ending 
in s or ss. Then according to these " doubting-dogmatics" the rule is 
to write thus. Xerxes's defeat ; Socrates's fate ; Dr. Dewees's works. 
Moses's assistance ; Philips's essays ; Shays's seizure ; the witness's 
or Jabez's sickness, &c. ; and yet they allow exceptions to these rules 
which the pupil can take at will. They are In-ria rubber rules. They 
comprise every thing in accordance with their principles ; and include, 
also, every thing that is opposed to them ! Some allow words ending 
in nee, to be without the apostrophic s ; as, for conscience' sake, what 
rules these are ! and Goold B. prudently tells the pupils " to indulge 
sparingly" in the liberty to say — Judas' expulsion, Phineas' wife, &c. 

What ! u indulge sparingly" in the use of language, admitted to be cor- 
rect ! After all the trash given by M., B., K., S., W. and the whole tribe, 
the pupil is left to his own judgment and taste, as much as though he 
had never seen a grammar ! except that K. insists that " words ending 
in ss have not the apostrophic s except in witness ; as the witness's sake. 
[Query. What has this word done that it must wear the badge of op- 
pression,] and that all ending with s, have the apostrophic s." The 
following examples Murray, and (after him as a file leader) the rest, 
condemn, or would condemn, as erroneous,* 

" Moses' ministers." " Phineas' wife." " The witness' questions." 
In these three examples, all the possessives end with the letter s : the 
last having ss, in its termination ; and the first having the sound of z, 
represented by the letter s. While he denounces these as erroneous, 
contending that they should be " Moses's ministers ; Phineas's wife ; 
and witness's questions ;" he sets his seal of approval to the examples ; 
" for goodness 1 sake ; conscience' sake ;" in one of which, the possessive 
ends in ss ; (precisely the same as the word vntness ; and in the other, 
the possessive ends in ce ; the e being silent or mute ; and the c repre- 
senting the sound of s. The reason for omitting the apostrophic s, re- 
member, is, " to avoid the hissing occasioned by having too many es-es 
(or s-es) sounded together;" but who does know that as much hissing 
would be produced by saying Moses's ministers ; Phineas's wife ; wit- 
ness's sake (or questions,) as by saying goodness's sake ; righteousness'^ 
sake ; conscience's sake 1 Nevertheless, the former three of these ex- 
amples he approves ; while the latter three he condemns. Moses- , should 
be Moses's; Phineas\ Phineas's, and witness", should be witness's. 
Yet goodness', should not be goodness's ; righteousness', righteousness's ; 
or conscience', conscience's. 

All authors agree with Murray, that the only design in omitting the 
apostrophic s, is '•' to avoid the hissing, occasioned by having too many 
sounds of the letter s, in close connexion." That being the design of 
the omission, why not give definite rules by which the pupil may know 
when he should omit the letter, and when he should not ? 

All will admit (for it is self-evident) that Moses, though ending in the 
letter s, really ends in the sound of z: that the apostrophic s is always 
sounded like z, except when annexed to names ending in the sound of f, 
k, p, I, or th aspirate : that in words ending is ss f only one s is sounded : 

* Brown might say " indulge very sparingly is the use of such examples \" 



320 SUBSTITUTES— PRONOUNS. 

that of words ending in ce, the e is mute or silent, and the c sounded like 
* .* that as much hissing would be produced by annexing the apostrophic 
s to a name ending in the sound of z, as by annexing it to one ending in 
the sound of s ; and as much by annexing it to one name ending with 
the sound of s or z, as by annexing it to another ending in that sound. 

This being admitted, and the reason for omitting the apostrophic s, at 
any time, being, "to avoid the hissing sound occasioned by its use :" it 
follows as a consequence or matter of course, that the apostrophic s should 
be omitted in all places where the name denoting the possessor ends in 
the sound s or z ; and, that if Moses' should be Moses's, Phtneas' be 
Phineas's and witness', witness's ; goodness' should be goodness's, 
righteousness'' should be righteousness'^ and conscience', conscience's : 
that if it is correct to say goodness' sake, righteousness' sake, and con- 
science* sake ; it is also correct to say Moses' sake, (or ministers,) 
Phineas' sake, (or wife,) witness' sake, (or questions,) Felix' sake, (or 
room ) It is obvious that, instead of these bewildering contradictories, 
that are worse than nothing, some broad and unexceptionable rule should 
control the whole, ending all dispute, dispelling duubt from the mind of 
the learner, and leaving him in a plain, straight-forward path, whose 
boundaries, extent, tendency, and termination he knows : for which rule, 
see the possessive case of names, page 44. 

LECTURE II. 
SUBSTITUTES PRONOUNS. 

To the term pronoun I have the same objection as to the term noun. 
To the English student, commencing the study of grammar, it means 
nothing ; having no application except in grammar. This, too, is a 
barrier in the pathway of the learner, instead of an initiatory means to 
facilitate his advancement. 

While to the English student it means nothing, to the Latinist, it does 
not mean enough. The pronoun does not always stand for a noun, or 
name. The Latinist tells us that the term pronoun is chosen to repre- 
sent this part of speech because it is one which stands in the place of a 
noun: that the term pronoun, is from pro, meaning for; and nomen, 
meaning a noun or name ! ! I should have no objection to putting all 
these classic terms (so ww-classically applied) into the appendix of a 
grammar ; so as to give the pedant an opportunity for showing his learn- 
ing classical : but why, to gratify his caprice, shall we inflict such pains 
and tortures upon the hundreds of thousands that will never dream of 
Virgil or Horace. Did the Latins call nouns and pronouns by Greek 
names to avoid using their own terms, for the purpose of distinction 1 

" The term pronoun comes from pro, for, and no-men a noun.''' No- 
men and noun are not half as much alike as John and Jonathan ; and 
who ever thought these to be one name'! I will admit that the term 
nomen having come from the Greek, into the Latin, and thence, through 
the French to the English, [it should not come into it,] becomes noun. 
Well ! what of that ? The term pronoun is just as senseless as though 
the pupil had been told — a \>xo-noun is a word standing for a name. 



SUBSTITUTES — PRONOUNS. 321 

What says Murray, the grammatical father of the others ? (K., B., S. 7 
and W.) — " The Pronoun sometimes stands for a name — sometimes for 
an adjective — a sentence — a part of a sentence— and, sometimes for a 
whole series of propositions." So that, in fact, the pronoun is a. pro- 
name ; a pro- adjective ; a ^ro-sentence, a pro-parUof-a-senter.ce, or a 
2??*0-even-a-whole-series-of-propositions —Pro, that is, for anything but 
good sense, and the plain representation of it. 

The pronouns, however and whenever they may be used, are always 
substituted in the places of other words, or combinations of words ; and 
this fact induces me to call them, what, consistently with reason, I can 
not avoid calling them — substitutes. 

Then, however strong may be the reasons already urged against the 
use of the term pronoun, a stronger one is, that we have in the language 
a term altogether preferable as it comes into grammar, and to the English 
student, full of meaning — not destitute of it, as the term pronoun ; 
and the fact that the latter term has been long used, argues against a 
continuance, (if it is wrong), instead of being a reason why we should 
retain it. It has done too much injury to students already. 

Any person or thinir, taking the place of another, becomes a substitute ; 
and any word taking the place of another, becomes, of course, a substi- 
tute for the word whose place it supplies. The path of philosophy is 
plain and direct. 

DISTINCTIONS. 

" Pronouns are of three kinds ; Personal, Relative, and Adjective/' — 
AH the old grammars except B.'s. 

Personal pronouns represent the persons of the nouns or names for 
which they stand. — Old grammars, except M.'s which does not define 
them at all. 

If personal pronouns are so called, because they represent the gram- 
matical person of the names for which they stand, then all pronouns are 
personal ; according to these authors' rules ; for they say " Pronouns 
must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in gender, person, and 
number ;" that is, they must, in themselves, represent these qualities of 
the nouns or names ; as, John was sick ; but he is now well. John, 
who was sick, is now well. 

Then both classes of pronouns are personal ; because both " repre- 
sent the person, as well as the gender and number for which they stand:'' 
while, below, it is seen that both classes are relative pronouns, from the 
fact of their according, fully, with the definition of the relatives* 

If they mean, as some of them have fully stated, in their theories, that 
" personal pronouns are so called because they " personify or represent 
the same objects that the names must otherwise be used to represent ;" 
then all pronouns are personal; as, John was sick, but he is now well. 
Here the term he represents the person John, that the name, John, must 
otherwise have represented. He, then, is a personal pronoun. John 
who was sick is now well. Here the term who represents the same per- 
son that is denoted by the name John. Who, then is a personal pro- 
noun. [Some of them remark, that the relative pronoun who, is, strictly. 
the only personal pronoun in the language ! because the only one appli- 



322 SUBSTITUTES — PRONOUNS. 

cable, exclusively, to persons.] All pronouns, then, are personal ; because 
(they say) " ail represent the persons of the nouns for which they 
stand.'* 

" A Relative pronoun relates to some word or phrase going before, 
which is thence called the antecedent." 

" Personal" pronouns, as well as " Relatives," relate to antecedents. 
Thus, John was sick; but he is now well. Here, he is a relative pro- 
noun, because it relates to the name John, "going before as its antece- 
dent." John, who was sick is now well. Here, loho is a relative pro- 
noun, because it relates to the name John, as its antecedent. 

ftr" Both kinds of pronouns or substitutes, are, then, personal, ac- 
cording to the definition of the personal : for both kinds represent the 
persons of the names for which they stand Both kinds are relative, ac- 
cording to the definition of the relative ; for both alike relate to antece- 
dents. Each class then belongs to both classes ! and both classes to each 
kind ! Grammar loaic ! 

Here follows the difference, the ground of distinction. The words 
called personal pronouns, simply, or merely, act in the places of names, 
as the names would act in their own place. Example : John was sick 
■ — John is now well — he is now well. Here, it is seen that the term he, 
just supplies the place of the name John ; simply acts as that would 
have acted in its own place. John was sick ; he is now well — John is 
now well. 

Because the term he is substituted in the place of the name John, I 
call it a substitute. Because it simply acts the part of the name, I call it 
simple : from both facts I call it a simple substitute. 

The words called relative pronouns, act the part of substitutes for 
names, phrases, or sentences, as much as the simple substitutes ; and 
act, also, as connective words, in forming a union of what would other- 
wise be two distinct sentences. Thus, John was sick ; is one sentence. 
John is now well ; is another sentence. Here it is seen that the term 
he, has no influence in connecting the sentences ; for they stand separate 
when he is used, as much as when John is repeated. John was sick ; 
but he is now well. Here, it is seen that the term he acts as a simple 
substitute for the name John, and the connective but, joins together the 
two sentences, making them become one compound sentence. Now, I 
will omit the simple substitute he, and the connective but, and put in a 
word that will act the parts of them both. Thus-^-John, who was sick, 
is now well. Here it is seen that the word who, acts as a substitute for 
the name John, as much as he does, in the former examples. It is, 
therefore, fully, a substitute. It acts the part of a connective ; uniting 
the two parts of the compound sentence even more closely than but does. 
It is therefore, connective. From both facts, unitedly considered, is seen 
the reason why this class of words is named as it is — connective substi- 
tute. 

The simple substitute acts but one part; that of a substitute for a 
name, phrase, or sentence ; as 'John was sick ; but he (or John) is now 
well. The connective substitute acts the twofold part of a connective and 
3 substitute ; sustains a twofold relation, and should, of course, have a 
name corresponding with, and indicatory of, its office or influence in the 
sentence, 



SUBSTITUTES — PRONOUNS. 323 

G. Brown shows a little more knowledge of the subject, but far less 
candor. He sees what most of the traits are, on which he should have 
founded the distinctions, and yet names the two classes without refer- 
ence to those distinctive traits. His faults are those of a man, as well 
as those of an author ; but as he says, " he has not written for bread f" 
he may think to excuse himself; as thouoh it v/ould render less his 
guilt, that he did not delude or suffer delusion, expressly for pay ! " for his 
bread!" I should have thought much more highly of him, if he had 
written for the guidance of mankind, as though his hopes of happiness in 
this life, and the next, were depending on the success of his attempt to 
develope, as well as understand the principles of the language. The 
public welfare should not be trifled with. A man should write well, or 
not write at all. 

Brown makes great ado concerning the adname principles of preced- 
ing works, in relation to the gender of pronouns. That is well enough. 
What he says concerning them is fact, but, "Physician, heal thyself" 
was never more applicable than to B. in the matter. 

The other authors say, that "gender has respect only to the third 
person singular of pronouns — he, she, and it :'* and then in their rules 
say, ''Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand in gen- 
der, person, and number," which is applying gender to all departments, 
ranks, classes, kinds, and variations of pronouns ! a great absurdity 
truly ! and as there are three kinds of pronouns ; and gender is applicable 
to only three of a single kind ; it would be like my saying that — death 
has sway over mankind in only one of all the kingdoms of the earth ; 
and only three persons of that one kingdom — and then, to corroborate that 
saying, to remark, that death has sway over all mankind for all men — 
people of all ranks, colors, races, and conditions must die ! ! but look at 
this. 

i3j= While Brown has the same rule [his and Murray's rule 5.] A 
pronoun must agree with its antecedent or the noun or pronoun which 
it represents in gender, &c. according to B.'s definition of gender, it can 
have reference only, (as Murray says,) •• to the third person singular of 
pronouns ;" and this rule of B. is, like the same rule of M ., at open 
variance with the fact : thus — if, as B. says, " Genders ! are modifica- 
tions that distinguish objects in regard to sex :" then it is perfectly cer- 
tain that pronouns of the third person only, have gender : for they only 
have " modifications that distinguish objects in regard to sex." Ex- 
emplification. The words /, mine, me : we, our, us ; they Y their, them, who, 
which, and what have no "modifications" whatever "for distinguishing ob- 
jects in regard to sex," and of course can have no gender, or agreement 
in gender ; for B. says, himself, " that no two things in nature, can any- 
wise agree or be alike, except in some quality or accident which belongs 
to each of them." Yet these remarks for his own condemnation are 
made in the paragraph, (see his work page 197,) where he denounces 
Murray, Kirkham, Pzerce, [not me, Pmce, for I had not, at the date of 
his work, written ;] and ten more whom he names," and others, as idle 
copyists ! ! What consistency ! 

Brown, after having treated largely ! on the gender of pronouns, 
comes, on page 48 of his grammar ! ! to a dead halt. He has mentioned 
several times on that page, his " Any-gender 7" and then speaking of the 



324 ross. case of subs. 

gender of a certain word as it is used ; and concerning which (perfectly 




thou that leadest another, blind, thyself?] 

B. in this matter is like a person who could see a little with one eye 
but " was blind as a beetle" of the other ; yet undertook to lead a blind 
man through a forest and morass : and after having traveled till near 
dark ; when seeing his companion sinking to his neck in mire ; himself 
not much less incommoded ; exclaimed " Mister ; haven't I brought you 
into a fine predicament 1 but if this is not the way through the forest, 
which is 1 Good night I 1 ' and left him to his fate. [I do not know what 
became of him !] See the distinctions of sex, pages 31 — 34 of this work. 



POSSESSIVE CASE OF PRONOUNS OR SUBSTITUTES. 

All the old grammars give hers, ours, yours, and theirs as the posses- 
sive form of the pronouns [substitutes] she, we, your, and they, and 
give, too, the rule that a noun or pronoun in the possessive case is 
governed by the name 4< of the thing possessed !" [Kirkham is most 
strangely absurd in rule XII. A noun or pronoun in the possessive 
case, is governed by the noun it possesses. 

First, this rule is ungrammatical in construction, because the transi- 
tive verb or asserter has no objective as his Rule XX denotes. Second- 
ly, It is most strangely absurd in fact ; " A noun or pronoun in the pos- 
sessive case is governed by the noun which it possesses ! Example. 
John took my book. Remember that K. is talking of nouns and pronouns, 
and he pretends that the word m-y (being in the possessive case) is 
governed by the word b-oo-k, which word, (not the thing,) the word m-y 
(not I) possesses. According to this rule of K., when I say John's 
horse was stolen — I do not, can not, represent that the man has sustain- 
ed the loss of the animal ; but that the letters J-o-h-n-'s, constituting the 
name of the man, have sustained the loss of the letters h-o-r-s-e ; for he 
says the name in the possessive case is governed by the following name, 
that the possessive term owns or possesses ! This is most lamentable. 
Who shall any more wonder that grammar ! has heretofore always been 
regarded a tedious matter 1] 

Let me go back to the possessive case of the pronoun. All words in 
the possessive case must precede, and depend on ["be governed by"] the 
name of the thing possessed. This is an unvarying principle, and is in 
exact accordance, not with the old rules, but what they are designed to 
represent. Then as all these (my favorite !) authors give hers, ours, 
yours, and theirs as " the possessive case" (form) of the pronouns she, 
we, yours, and they. To say Maria took hers book ; and we took ours 
hook ; you took your book, and they took theirs book, is perfectly gram- 
matical ! according to Murray, K. B. S. and W., and the whole train of 
former writers.* 

* Brown says — " most of the personal pronouns have two forms in each 
.number ;" as, our, ours, your, yours, &c. " The former are used before nouns 



tiOM?OlTND RELATIVES. 325 

Mark this. — Whatever they may say by their notes ; if their declension 
-of pronouns, is correct ; and the rule for governing the possessive case, 
right ; these sentences are perfectly grammatical, and for them to say 
that these sentences are incorrect would be to say, also, that the expres- 
sions her book ; our book ; your book, and their book, are ungrammatical 
also : for both forms are found as the possessive case, and the rule of 
course applies equally to both. In this matter Brown is as weak as any 
-other of M.'s satellites. [See lesson VII, page 73 of this work : also the 
•declension of simple substitutes page 61.] 

COMPOUND RELATIVES. 

[Twofold case of connective substitutes. ] 

' u What is a kind of compound relative, including both the antecedent 
-and the relative ; as, That is what I wanted : that is, the thing vjhich I 
wanted." Old Grammars. 

The old authors admit that "parsing a word, is enumerating and 
describing all its various properties and its grammatical relations to the 
other words in a sentence." 

Then let us see how the compound relative is parsed according to these 
writers. " Parsing a word," remember, '.' is enumerating and describing 
its various relations and qualities, and its grammatical relations to other 
words in the sentence." Let us first, hear G. Brown. Page 46 he says 
the pronoun what has a twofold relation, [how true !] and is often used 
by the ellipsis of the noun [how absurd !] both as antecedent and rela- 
tive ; being equivalent to that which or the thing which. " It is usually 

expressed ; the latter, when the governing noun is understood or so placed as 
not immediately to follow the pronoun." 

He admits that even theirs, ours, yours, and the like, have nouns or names 
really belonging in connexion with them ; for he talks of the "governing noun" 
(the one denoting the thing possessed) as being " understood." This is, of 
•course, admitting that the noun " understood" is a part of the sentence and be- 
longs in it ; as even he dares not pretend, that a word in a sentence is govern- 
ed by, that is, depending on, a word that has no connexion with the sentence, 
that does not belong to the sentence and as a part of it. " Government," he 
says,' "is that [it should be the] power which one word has over another to 
cause it to assume some particular modification." 

Thus, " John took his book." Here the term hi&, is said to be governed by 
the name book : that is, the name book requires the word his to have that 
form, [and depend for sense on the name book.] John and Henry took my 
book and left theirs. Here, according to Brown, the term theirs is governed by 
the name book " understood ;" that is the name book requires the term theirs 
to assume that form. Now I ask if the name book has no connxion with the 
sentence, has no place in it, can it exercise any controlling power over the 
words that are in the sentence ? It is utterly impossible. As well might one 
pretend, that the Queen of England in the palace royal, is governed by sdme 
Cossack boor, "understood," who was never in the palace and who would be 
thrust out if he should ever go in. Then according to Brown (and all the 
rest of these grammatical sages /) the sentence " John and Henry took my 
book and left theirs" in every way perfect, must, to be grammatical ! stand, 
John and Henry took my book and left theirs book: the term theirs being in the 
possessive case and governed by the name book. [See p. 61-2 & 73 of this book.] 

28 



826 COMPOUND RELATIVES. 

of the singular number [that is, the singular modification,] though some- 
time [sti/l unchanged] of the plural number" [that is of the " plural modi- 
fication" when the word itself has no modification, whatever, with respect 
to number !} as, He is ashamed of what he has done. He should apply 
this example to himself in this very particular ! for see ! He says tk what 
is used by ellipsis of the noun." He says, " the ellipsis must be supplied 
to complete the construction ;" and this, taken as he says, would require 
the sentence to stand, *' He is ashamed of what the thing which he has 
done." This is proper : and this, only, is the correct expression of the 
sentiment, if the above two positions of B. are correct ; but, even waiving 
a part of his absurdity, the sentence must then, to be correct, stand, " He 
is ashamed of the thing which he has done— Of the thing which. Reader : 
where is the what that we began to parse ? Why, says B. " what is used 
by ellipses of the noun :" and he says 7 also, that the *' words which are 
omitted by ellipsis must be supplied to complete the construction :" so 
that to parse what is to take it in the parsing tongs ! and throw it as an in- 
terloper, outof the sentence : and parse the words that belong where what 
had crowded in : to parse, not the word uhal, at all ; but the words if of 
the ellipsis, supplied." Thus. He is ashamed of the thing tohich he has 
done : the parsing of the word what, not having been attempted : for 
parsing a word is enumerating and describing its various properties and 
relations to the sentence — not throwing it out of the sentence, and putting 
an awkward combination of words into the place which that most 
elegantly and gracefully fills. f 

Parsing, though less directly defined byB. than by the other writers, is 
nevertheless tangible in its definition. You have only to chace it once 
around " Robin-Hood's barn," and you will catch it. Thus, 

Parsing is the resolving or explaining of a sentence according to the 
definition and rules of grammar ! This, alone, would allow him to call 
his book " grammar," and then parse [independently of the principles of 
propriety] to suit his own caprice, (like the Jesuit Indian, that, desiring 
to fast, and yet enjoy animal food during Lent, sprinkled moose-meat and 
called it " bread /") *' A perfect definition of a thing or class of things is 
such a description of it as distinguishes that entire thing or class from 
every thing else in nature." [This is a little towards the point.] 

" A rule of grammar is some law more or less general, by which custom 
prescribes the right use of language." [Here we have him at last !] 

" Parsing is resolving and explaining words according to the rules of 
grammar." Done I 

" Grammar is the art of speaking and writing correctly." Done ! 

" A rule of grammar is some law prescribing the right use of lan- 
guage." Done ! 

Now, G. Brown ; let us reason together. If it is correct to use what, 
as a ** compound relative," the rule which directs putting other words 
into the place of it, is wrong : for a mle you say " prescribes the right 
use of language." Example. Speaking of fruit, I s:y W illiam purchased 
five bushels ; and I took what he had left. " I took what he had left." 

Here you say that '* what is used by ellipsis of the noun, and is equiva- 
lent to — the thing which." You say that "in parsing, the ellipsis must 
be supplied." This would force the sentence to stand I took the thing 
which he had left : and would throw out the word what. Then if the 



COMPOUND RELATIVES. 327 

rule which forces me to throw out what, in supplying the ellipsis, is a 
correct rule ; the word what was incorrectly used, and should not of 
course be put into a place from which the rule of grammar ! would eject 
it. To put a word into a place which a rule of grammar will not allow 
it to hold, is ungrammatical — and as it is seen that according to the rules 
of B.'s grammar ! [the same may be said of the others] either the ex- 
pression is right, and the rule wrong, or the rule right, and the use of 
what as a compound relative [a connective substitute in the twofold case] 
is wrong in alU places and circumstances whatever: for, mark this; 
** Grammar is the art of speaking and writing correctly." 

■" A Rule is some law prescribing the right use of language." 
" Parsing is resolving or explaining according to the rules of grammar." 
Conclusion. — What, (as seen above) parsed according to their rules of 
grammars is thrown out and not parsed at all : and the proper words ! 
4< the thing which ," are, by supplying the ellipsis, put into its place. 
Then, as this is done according to rules of grammar: the word what, 
being expelled, is disgraced by the rule discarding it, for " grammar is 
the art of speaking and writing correctly," and " a rule of grammar is 
«ome law prescribing the right use of language :" and that rule of gram- 
mar has ejected the word what, from the place which it held. What, 
then, cannot have been " rightly used ;" for if " rightly," why is it ex- 
pelled by the rule which prescribes aright 1 That rule is a rule of gram- 
mar, and grammar is the art of speaking correctly. Then as that rule 
has expelled what, for its tort or wrong ; it is a violation of correct prin- 
ciples to use ivhat at all, as a compound relative pronoun ; [connective 
substitute in the twofold case] and from all such places, that ichat holds, 
it should, by a joint resolution and action of these grammarians ! be 
ejected or expelled : and, bearing the mark of infamy, should be incapa- 
ble of holding any such office hereafter for ever ! [See pages 74-75.] 

If the language is correct — -if I may still say, I took what John had 
left; Whatever purifies, fortifies, also the heart, — then what shall be 
done with these, the accusers of the word what ? Let their grammatical 
fabric become a heap ; their rules a by -word, and a standing jest, be- 
cause they have risen against the word what, that the majesty of the 
English language has ever honored and will ever guard.*] 

The relations of these words, are very easily described. I may say r 
" I took the fruit which John had left ;" or, having mentioned the fruit, 

* Kirkham has made a great discovery in relation to whatever, whichever, 
and the like, as compound relatives ; as, Take whatever you choose. He 
says, pages 112-13, " With regard to the word ever, it is a singular fact ! ! 
that as soon as we analyze the word to which it is subjoined, ever is entirely 
excluded from the sentence !" Strange ! that he should notice the absence 
of ever without seeing that what is gone too ! ! for when he parses 
whatever, he throws that aside, and takes the thing which : as, " John ; take the 
thing which you like," so that, not ever, only, but the entire word whatever, is. 
thrown out, and the thing which takes its place. 

"As soon as " always denotes succession of events. Now, Kirkham; is 
the word ever excluded as soon as you have parsed whatever, or by the act and 
during the time of parsing that word ? 

One Solomon Barrett, jr., remarks in his grammar, that " God created the 
world — and as soon as God created the world, then the world existed !" Pos- 
sible ? i J 



328 COMPOUND RELATIVES. 

I may say, " I took what John had left." Here the word what, acts as S 
substitute for the name fruit, which would otherwise have been used. 
It connects two sentences, forming them into one ; it is therefore a 
connective : and from both facts, united, it is constituted, as it is seen 
to be, a connective substitute. *' John had left fruit," is one sentence. 
" I took the fruit," is another sentence. "John had left some fruit and 
I took it." Here the simple substitute it, is used in the place of the 
name fruit, and by the use of the word and, the two simple sentences are 
put together to form or constitute one sentence. * 

" I took the fruit which John had left." Here the name f'uit occurs 
in the objective case after the asserter took, according to rule VI, and 
the word which acting as a substitute for the name fruit ; and at the 
same time connecting the parts of the sentence,, like and, occurs in 
the objective case before the transitive asserter had left, on which it de- 
pends. The words which and fruit, sustain, each, a simple objective re- 
lation to the sentence ; fruit, in the objective case coming after the as- 
serter took, on which it depends ; and which, coming before the transi- 
tive asserter had left on which it depends. 

" I took what John had left." Here the connective substitute what 
sustains, in case, the two relations that were before sustained by the 
words fruit and which. I took the fruit which John had left. — I took 
what John had left. Like the xvordjruil, for which it stands, it occurs 
in the objective case after the ^transitive asserter took, on which it de- 
pends for sense ; rule VI : and like the word which* that it also repre- 
sents, it occurs in the objective case before the transitive asserter had 
left, on which it depends for sense, according to the same rule. It is y 
then, seen in a twofold case ; sustaining a twofold objeetiv® relation 
to the sentence. 

I took what had been left. Here what sustains to the fore part of the 
sentence, the relation of the objective case ; denoting the object of the 
action of taking, expressed by the asserter took, on which it depends ; 
and to the last part of the sentence, it sustains the relation of the sub*- 
jective case ; representing the fruit (or whatever may be referred^ to>as. 
the subject of the remark, and having, according to rule I, part I, the 
asserter had been left, depending on it for sense. 

It is seen that in the following example it is in the twofold case, sustain- 
ing two objective relations to the sentence. I supposed from what John 
had said that he was a merchant. Here what, denotes the fact which is the 
object of relation, and is in the objective case after the relative from, or 
which it depends : Rule XV, part 1 : And also denotes the fact repre- 
sented as the object of the action expressed by the transitive asserter 
had said, on which, also, it depends for sense ; rule VL 

On the words whatever, whichever, and the like, as adnames, I have 
to remark that although they have heretofore been regarded as " con- 
nective substitutes," or "compound relative pronouns," it is only by a 
mistake s that they have been so regarded; for, while acting as substitutes or 
pronouns, they must have case. It is seen that when prefixed to names 
they have no case. Thus, " John ; take whatever person you choose 
as your associate." Here the name person denotes the object to be ta^en, 
and is in the objective case after the transitive asserter take : Rule VL 
And at the same time it denotes the object of the action expressed, by 



AS — A RELATIVE PRONOUN 329 

the transitive asserter choose, and depends on that asserter, according to 
rule VI. 

If asked what word denotes the object of the act of taking, we should 
say, the name -person. If asked what word denotes ihe object to be 
chosen, we should say that it was the self-same word, denoting the self- 
same object ; the same person, represented by the same word being the 
object of both actions, the person being both chosen and taken, and that 
word being dependent alike on the two asserters ; from the fact that it 
could not be so used without both the asserters. 
Nature's care, to all her children just, 
With richer treasures and an ampler state, 
Endows at large, whatever happy man 
Will deign to use them. Thomson. 

This sentence transposed, would stand thus : Nature's care, just to 
all her children, endows at large, with richer treasures and an ampler 
state, whatever happy man wdl deign to use them. The word man being 
in the objective case after the transitive asserter endows, according to rule 
VI ; and in the subjective or nominative case before the asserter will 
deign, according to Rule I, part 1. The sentence is perfect without put- 
ting in or taking out a single word; yet see Kirkham's transposition ! 
11 Nature's care, which is just to all her children, largely endows with 
richer treasure and an. ampler state, that* happy man who will deign to 
use them." What a transposition — transformation ! To transpose, is, 
to change the relative location of words in a sentence : to transform, is, 
to form anew so as to change principles as well as places. Had 
Kirkham been a grammarian he could never have called this changing 
of the sentence by him a transposition. Besides, Kirkham ; what has 
become of your adname whatever ? Your " ever " of that word has gone. 
(" singular fact !") and the word what, with it. The old grammarians 
are ali of a piece in this matter. 

AS, USED AS A CONNECTIVE SUBSTITUTE, OR 
RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

There is a mistake in relation to this matter also. The terms than 
and as, are shown on page - — , to be modifying connectives, in exam- 
ples like the following. " As many as are of the law, shall be judged 
by the law.' 7 John took more fruit than Henry. 

Must not all see that the latter as, here used, is only the correspond- 
ing part of the combination as-as ; the other as being the first word of 
the sentence. The sentence would be complete, though different ia 

*That is improperly used by Kirkham. It is a "singular feet" that he spoils, 
utterly spoils, in- transformation, the very best of language — whatever he 
touches. The reason why that is ungrammatically used, in this place by 
Kirkham, is ; the words, this, that, these, those, are sufficient, of themselves, 
to particularize their respective objects ; and should never be used as ad- 
names, with connective substitutes to assist them; which assistance they never 
require. The is not sufficient without a prior expression of the object, or the 
use of oth^r words, to particularize its object ; and it may always be used 
with a connective substitute, in describing an object not before mentioned 
and particularized. * 

28* 



330 AS — A RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

meaning, if formed in this manner " Many are of the law. IVfany sh 
be judged by the law." This would not represent equality in relation tc 
the proportion of the persons being under the law, and those judged by 
it, as the sentence first given represents it. 

The influence of as used as a modifying connective is to throw back 
the reference of the asserter following it, to the subjective word on which 
the other asserter depends. Thus, such persons as write grammar, 
should, themselves, be grammarians. Here it is seen that the word per- 
sons, is the only one denoting the subject of the remark, while the word 
as, causing the asserter write : to refer to t|ie name persons, prevents 
the necessity of using another word in the subjective case. Thus, Such 
persons as are most anxious to learn the secrets of others, are always 
most ready to reveal them. 

The advocates of the pretence that as is a relative pronoun, or con- 
nective substitute, place much stress on the fact, that the ideas may be 
expressed by another set of words, which would allow the word who or 
which to supply its place. Admit this point for a moment, and make the 
principle general. Then, if words expressing a certain fact may always 
be parsed in the same manner as another combination expressing the 
same sentiment ; in the sentence, " Cain killed Abel," we may parse 
the name Cain as in the objective case ; Abel in the subjective or nomi- 
native case ; and the asserter or verb killed, as a receptive asserter [pas- 
sive verb] ; because when the sentence is changed to " Abel was killed 
by Cain," the words must be parsed in the manner above mentioned. 

There is another principle which should not be overlooked by the ad- 
vocates for the relative-pronoun quaities of as. U as is a relative pro- 
noun or connective substitute, in the following example : — "As many 
persons as heard the word believed ;" then, in the next example, than is 
also. " More persons heard the word than believed ; or " More persons 
than believed heard the word." Yet, no one ever thought of attributing 
pronoun qualities to than. 

As prevents the repetition of the asserter or verb, and the objective 
word; as, John took as much fruit as William, which sentence repre- 
sents, without the repetition of the asserter took and the name fruit, that 
William took the same quantity of fruit, taken by John. 

John took more fruit than William. Here than, with the use of other 
words, represents, that William took fruit, though in an unequal propor- 
tion. Yet than is so used as to prevent the repetition of the asserter 
and name {took and fruit}, just as the word as prevented it. 

John has more fruit than he can carry— -John has as much fruit as he 
can carry. Here it is seen, that the word as, like tbe word than, by re- 
ferring back to the name fruit, precludes the necessity of repeating it. 
In the next two examples, than and as, (though one denotes equality 
and the other inequality), both alike prevent the repetition of the word 
in the subjective or nominative case. Thus, John has as much fruit as 
can be gathered in a week. John has more fruit than can be gathered 
in a week. That Maw is a modifying connective, or "Adverbial Con- 
junction," all admit. It is shown above, that if than is a connective, as 
must be : so that there is no longer any ground for controversy ; one 
fact having been admitted, and the other proved. That both are modi- 
fying connectives, is seen on pages 171 and 175. The above sentence — 



A3 — A RELATIVE PRONOTJtf. 331 

" John has more fruit than can be gathered in a week — in every respect 
full and perfect — must, to be grammatical! according to all the "old 
theories," stand, John has more fruit than that fruit is which, or which 
fruit can be gathered in a week ! ! ! 

Wright says that " Personal pronouns may be in the nominative case," 
and that " relative pronouns can not be." Yet he declines his relatives 
thus, — " Nominative case who ; possessive whose ; objective whom ;" and 
shows, by his definitions, that each class of pronouns belongs to both 
classes ! ! ! 

If his Rule II. page 162, is correct, which shows relative pronouns to 
be in the objective case ; then, according to his note, page 152, the rela- 
tive may be in the nominative case : for that note allows and limits the 
same privileges to both cases, exactly alike. 

If his Rule II, page 162, is correct, which denies the/<zc/ that a rela- 
tive is ever in the nominative case ; his note, page 152, proves, that the 
relative can not be in the possessive or objective in at>y case ! for this 
note allows and limits both kinds of the pronouns in the same manner 
in relation to all the cases. The language of the rule is, 4t No relative 
can become a nominative to a verb. Yet a relative, referring to a noun 
\rhich is the nominative in the sentence, may be governed, in the objec- 
tive case, by a verb or preposition." "While this rule unqualifiedly and 
unreservedly denies that the relative can ever be in the nominative case, 
and in language equally strong, declares that it may be in the objective 
case, (and in the example illustrates its ample powers in the possessive 
case,) the language of the note, page 152, is, "A relative is said to be 
in the nominative, possessive, or objective case, only so far as it relates 
to a noun or personal pronoun, which, if put in I its place would be in 
one of these cases." So that, as the relative pronouns are allowed, by 
this note, the same relation with respect to all the cases, his Rule II, 
page 162, must, while denying the fact, allow the use of the relative in 
trie nominative case, as much as in the objective, and demy while affirm- 
ing the fact that it is, or may be, ever used in the objective case ! ! ! 

Concerning the word you, Mr. Wright says, page 55, " To say, You 
are a man, is not grammatical language ;" and yet (how strange !) he 
always says you, in addressing a single object. In relation to this part 
of your work, Mr. Wright, I am willing to admit, that I should doubt 
the correctness (not the grammatical correctness, however,) of saying, 
You are a grammarian ! The word you, like the word riches, and other 
of the defective names, may be used in application to a single object, or 
to more than one object ; and yet riches, like tongs, trowsers, pinchers^ 
(or pincers,) must have its dependent verb orasserterin the plural form. 
So, Mr. W., although wrong, you are not singular in this error, as the 
same principle which you inculcate, has been inculcated by other writers, 
who practice on that principle, as little as yourself. Then, although I 
could not say, you are a grammarian, I may say correctly, in grammar and 
in fact, " You are an author." You, as a substitute, is said to be in the 
plural form, because, when several objects are meant, you must be used, 
although it may be used in reference to a single object. Besides, it is 
regarded as plural in sense, except when the words, with which it is con- 
nected, show the sense to be singular. Then, as thou is used only in 
the singular sense, it is said to be in the singular form : and you is said 
to be in the plural form, because it must, be used to represent several 



332 ADNAME SUBSTITUTE — ADJECTIVE PRONOUN. 

objects, although it may be used in application to single objects, if the 
singularity is sufficiently shown by other means. 

ADNAME SUBSTITUTE ADJECTIVE PRONOUN* 

Adjective pronouns are said to be so called " because they partake of 
the qualities of both adjectives and pronouns." Yet it is an easy task 
to prove that according to the definitions of these two parts of speech, 
as given by the old grammarians, the words called "adjective pronouns" 
do not partake in the least degree of the qualities of either. Thus, 
\ u An adjective is a word added to a noun to show its quality," [by 
which they mean, probably, if they mean any thing, the quality of the 
object denoted by the noun or name] " as a sweet apple." " A pronoun 
is a word used instead of a noun." Exemplification — John gave this 
book to Henry, and that portrait to Richard. Does the word this or that 
show in the least imaginable degree the quality of the book or portrait 1 
No. Then it has none of the qualities of an adname. Does the word 
this or that stand in the place of a noun or name 1 No. Then neither 
of them partakes in any degree of the natnre of a pronoun. So if the 
word this or that does not partake in the least degree of the nature of 
either (the adjective or pronoun), how, I ask, can it partake of the nature 
of both 1 

Here I have given the sense of all the old definitions of adjectives 
and pronouns, except the far more objectionable definitions of the 
adjective as given by Brown :. and it is seen as clearly as any thing 
can be shown in logic, that according to these definitions of adjectives 
and pronouns, the " adjective-pronouns " have not the least similarity 
to either. , 

Will the bigots before the shrine of the old theorists pretend that in 
the sentence — " This man is more intelligent than that" the word that 
acts the part of the pronoun or substitute ? I will admit that it would, 
if they had known enough to leave perfect, and elegant, a sentence which 
is so ; but they will tell you that the sentence to be grammatically com- 
plete must stand — This man is more intelligent than that man is.* Let 

* They pretend that, unless we put in the name understood we can not 
tell what is meant. Old Theorist ; mark this. If the sentence was not full 
without the name " understood ;" if yon did not understand fully what is meant 
without that name : you could not tell what name to put in as understood. 
Thus John gave two peaches to me and three to Henry In this example, if 
you did not know that by the word three that L mean three peaches; how I 
ask, can you tell what name must be understood ! You would not know but 
that I mean three cows or sheep. 

So in the use of the two fold case (in .the possessive form) of a name, as, 
John bought my horse and I bought Williams. Here, if, as they pretend, 
they do not know what I mean, without putting in the name horse 4< understood" 
I ask them how they know what word they should put in. The fact that they 
know what word to put in, is proof conclusive that they understand me fully 
without that word. Why, then, as the sentence is complete, will they over 
burden the ideas with useless words ? 

An exact parallel to this philosophic ! principle of the old authors, is 
Kirkham's remark to the pupil, in relation to the business of transposing 



ADNAME SUBSTITUTE — ADJECTIVE PRONOUN. 333 

the sentence stand complete! as above reformed [deformed!] and still 
the word this or that has no assimilarity to either the adjective or the 
pronoun, as defined by the old theorists. This then is settled. [These 
remarks are not applicable to G. Brown ; I will take his adjectives anc^ 
pronouns, soon.] What says Kirkham ] In his grammar ! page 105, 
he calls them u adjective pronouns'* — "pronominal adjectives," but 
says " they are more properly specifying adjectives." [Give me the 
proper way, always.] He says on the same page [105] 

44 Pronouns and adjectives are totally distinct in their ! character. The 
former stand for nouns and never belong to them ; the latter belong to 
nouns, and never stand for them. Hence such a thing as an adjective 
pronoun cannot exist." [TrueO! K., if the old grammars are correct ! !] 
44 Each, every, either, this, that, somc^ other, and the residue are pure ad' 
jectives /" [Then why do you not parse them so, K. 1] 

The sense of a rule in all the old grammars is given by Murray's 
rule VIII. 44 Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun belongs to 
some noun expressed or understood." I have only to ask, does not the 
principle of the rule, making the 4 ' adjective pronoun " belong to a noun, 
preclude the possibility of its being any thing but an adnarne : and to 
ask in relation to this matter, can an adjective or adjective pronoun, that 
is in a sentence, belong to a noun which is not a part of the same 
expression. Does not the fact that the adjective or adjective pronoun 
is said to belong to a noun, make the noun or name a member of the 
sentence; a part of the expression? This rule, then, if correct, pre- 
vents the possibility of the adjective pronouns ever being pronouns in 
any respect when the sentence is made grammatically complete ! andjas 
every sentence should be grammatically complete, it follows that accord- 
ing to these theories, the words called adjeciive pronouns should never 
be used as substitutes for nouns or names — should never be used as 
pronouns, but should always, like adjectives, " belong to nouns or 
names." 

Then, certainly, according to the principles of the old theories, no pre- 
mises could have been more correctly laid, no conclusion could have been 
more logically drawn, than these have been laid and drawn by Kirkham, 
proving clearly that according to his grammar and all the rest, whatever 
certain words may be called, 4< such a thing as an adjective pronoun 
can not exist." 

The strangest part of this matter is that Kirkham after having proved, 
for himself, his grammatical progenitors, fraternity and progeny, that 
44 there can not be an adjective pronoun," on page 107 directs the pupil 
to parse those very words 44 adjective pronouns," ior his language is — 
44 The manner of parsing an adjective pronoun is — an adjective pronoun ! 

poetry. He says "In order* to come at the meaning of the author, you will 
find it necessary to transpose his language, and supply what is understood." 
Kirkham : let me ask you : is it not impossible to transpose, and know that you 
are doing it correctly, without first having the sense or meaning of the author? 
Is not this the sine qua non [There ! Latinist.'] in transposition ? [that without 
which, nothing can be done in the matter ?] 

* In order should never be used except when meaning in arrangement^ 



334 ADNAME SUBSTITUTE — ADJECTIVE PRONOUN. 

and why? Distributive, demonstrative or indefinite and why? To 
what noun does it belong ? ! or with what does it agree 1" ! ! ! He then 
gives in exemplification '* One man [himself, doubtless] instructs many 
others," and parses it thus. One is an adjective pronoun, or specifying 
IPdjective, &c. and on page 108 gives his rule for parsing it as belonging 
to the name man. " Adjective pronouns ! belong to nouns expressed or 
understood." 

In parsing the words " other men," and " those books are mine " he 
parses others and those as " adjective pronouns " ! and gives his rule con- 
concerning " adjective pronouns." What grammatical consistency ! ! 
What food for the juvenile mind ! Nay, rather, what insult ; downright, 
barefaced, insult to the understanding of man. Are these works Gram- 
mars 1 (and all the old works are equally absurd in relation to these 
principles) so utterly at variance with common sense, with Logic, Sci- 
ence and every principle of fact ; Brown's grammar is if possible worse 
than the others, for see — "A pronominal adjective is a definitive word 
which may accompany its noun, or represent it understood." See his 
grammar, page 40. This definition is applicable to all the primary 
adnames or adjectives in the language except a, the, every, very, and 
said. 

The term "definitive," without a following adname to direct its sense, 
is just as properly applicable to a qualifying adname as to any other, for 
all qualifying adnames are used to define or describe the class or charac- 
ter of objects, as, I met a good man; I ate a sweet apple: and quite as appli- 
cable to number and order as to any other principle : as, I saw two men 
at the concert. All these terms are definitive, and as much so when 
showing quality or number as when expressive of any thing else. 

That all these classes of words with the exceptions above noticed, 
may be used in the places of names, will be seen from the following 
examples. Thus, The wise are lights to the world. Four men can do 
as much in ten days, as two can, in twenty. 

11 All join to guard what each desires to gain." Then according to G. 
Brown, all the primary adnames of the language except a, are, the, every, 
very, and said, are pronominal adjectives. This is clearly seen from his 
description of the pronominal. What is Brown's Rule ! in relation to 
this matter? Page 105— 130, Rule IV. "Adjectives relate to nouns 
and pronouns." This rule includes the pronominal adjectives as much 
as any others, for it applies to all the adjectives ; and pronominal adjec- 
tives are adjectives, of course. Besides, although he inculcates that, 
" in parsing, the ellipsis is to be supplied, and although he gives the 
above rule in two different places, he nevertheless says on page 43, 
" when their nouns are not expressed they may be parsed as represent- 
ing them in person, gender, number, and case" Query. "Friend 
Goold," what u modifica'ions," have qualifying or specifying adnames 
{this, that and the numerals excepted) for distinguishing objects in rela- 
tion to any of these things'? None ! Just none ! ! 

Mark it ! He says " adjectives relate to nouns and pronouns." [His 
rule IV, pages 105 — 130.] This prevents the possibility of their being 
parsed as substitutes for, or representatives of, the names ; and while 
he always inculcates the principle of " supplying the ellipsis" which this 
rule demands, and which he everywhere illustrates, he, notwithstanding 



CONCLUSION. 335 

all this, says, " A pronominal adjective, when its noun is not expressed, 
may be parsed as representing it in person, gender, number, and case." 
Thus we see, in coming from the other writers — Murray, and his other 
satellites, (K.,.S., and W.,) to G. Brown, we are only coming from bad 
and worse, to worst ! Another remark concerning my friend G. B. — 
While on page 133 he tells the learner, that them should never be used in 
lieu of those, on page 130 he quotes (for particular illustration of some- 
thing else), and adopts without comment language exactly, like that 
against which, on page 133, he warns the pupil, as " them two, or twain, " 
instead of those two. 

I here remark, and wish my remark to be remembered, as well as read ; 
that taking certain principles of Goold Brown's grammar — (the same 
may be said of the others) — principles which he has explicitly stated, 
I can prove that every thing in language is correct ; and taking other 
principles stated equally explicit, I can disprove the grammatical cor- 
rectness of any thing, spoken or written. He, like many others, appears 
at first not to have thought, while writing in one department of his the- 
ory, of what he had written in any other. Yet it is too obvious, on a 
close investigation, that very many of his errors are those of the heart, 
rather than those of the head ; for it is impossible that he did not see 
many of his own inconsistencies, and yet shows that he lacked can- 
dour, in exhibiting to the public, for fact and philosophy, what he knows, 
and others have proved to him, and before him, to be the very reverse of 
either — of both. While Kirkham has the candour to disprove, in his 
notes, the possibility of matters being as he has represented them in the 
body of his work ; he has the weakness, blindness, and presumption, to 
ask the pupils to believe what he has proved, before their eyes, is utterly 
false ! and to parse words as he has proved they can not be. ! ! 

CONCLUSION OF THE MATTER. 

I have attempted to prove the impossibility of these theories being 
within the bounds of fact, philosophy, or common sense ; and I think I 
have succeeded. I have shown, that according to the definition of per- 
sonal pronouns, all pronouns or substitutes are personal ; that according 
to the definition of the relative, all are relative; and of course, that all 
the rules which are applicable to either, are applicable to both ; that ac- 
cording to the definition of adjectives and pronouns, as given by the old 
theorists, " such a thing as an ' adjective pronoun ' cannot exist ;" that 
although G. Brown is equal, in almost all the rest of his grammatical, 
dogmatic contrarieties ; in this last matter, he is more absurd than any 
of his coadjutors ; that though he defines the pronominal adjective in a 
manner to make it comprise almost every adname in the language ; and 
though he says it may, in the absence of the noun, be parsed as its re- 
presentative, as its substitute or a pronoun, yet, from the fact that he 
calls it adjective (however it may be used), and the influence of his rule 
IV, if that is correct, it is utterly impossible that it should be parsed cor- 
correctly as any thing but a pure adjective. 

I have shown, that although the old theorists represent, that gender 
has respect only to the third person singular of personal pronouns, yet, 
as the rule is, that " pronouns must always agree with the nouns for 



336 CONCLUSION. 

which they stand, in person, gender, and number," which is saying, that 
gender, with those other appurtenances, belongs to all the personal and 
all the ralative pronouns ; and as they call the adname substitutes this, 
thai, and the like, adjective pronouns, making them belong to that genus 
or class of words called pronouns ; gender, person, and number, must be 
applied to all of them ; although, according to their definitions, (as K. 
has proved,) these selfsame words are pure adjectives ; that G. Brown, 
(after having denounced as mere ''scribblers" and "copyists" the others,) 
has fallen into the same absurdities in most cases, and into some still 
more strange, and even ridiculous, in his any genders ! page 48, and his 
applying or attributing his modifications of genders, persons, and num- 
bers to many classes of words that have no modification in these several 
respects at all ; and in giving his definitions and rule concerning the 
pronominal adjectives, that can and can not, may and may not, represent 
its noun — may be parsed as a pronominal adjective — and yet, at the 
same time, as a pronoun ; and still, by his rule, requiring it to relate to 
noun, preclude the possibility of its being either a pronominal adjective 
or a pronoun, showing by his rule IV, and its application and illustra- 
tion, that the " pronominal-adjective-pronoun" is, after the fogs of blun- 
dering, inconsistency, and sophistry, have disappeared, a pure and sim- 
ple adjective or adname, according to others' definition, but not even that, 
according to his own, as it shows no quality ; and he says, " adjectives 
generally ! do ;" without telling what is their office when they do not. 
Oh ! what absurdity, blindness, weakness, conceit, deception, delusion ! 
Is it possible to imagine, that the study of grammar could have been any 
thing bnt what it has — a dry, tedious, toilsome, servile, useless drudgery 
of learning; the pupil being made to believe that something is fact, which 
the teachers — the very theorists themselves — have proved to be the very 
farthest from fact, owning and defending as scientific truth, what is 
known and proved to be utterly and totally false 1 ! 

From this disgusting, though very faintly shaded, picture of grammar ! 
as it has been regarded, let us turn to the plainness of philosophy and 
fact. 

Example. — They put the good fish into vessels, but cast the had away. 
Here it is seen, that the word good is added to the name fish, only to 
show the quality of the animals denoted by the name : while the word 
had, as a substitute for the name fish, and represents f ,he animals as fully 
as that name could have represented them ; and, at the same time, 
shows the quality of these animals as much as good shows the quality 
of the others. That bad does not, as here used, belong to the genus, or 
part of speech called adnames or adjectives, is obvious from the fact, that 
though, like an adname, it shows quality, it does not, like an adname, 
belong to, and depend on, either a name or substitute ; and without this 
— without belonging to, and depending on, a name or substitute, no 
word can be an adname. 

That it does, as here used, belong to the class of words or part of speech 
called substitutes [or pronouns,] is certain from the fact, that it is used 
in the place of the name fish and is in every respect a full representative 
of it. It is seen to be a full substitute ; and an adname in its qualifying 
influence, but not in its relation and dependence. It is then an adname 
substitute, the word substitute denoting the genus of words or part of 



&b'NA&£ StBSTltUTE — ADJECTIVE PiEiONOtJN. 33? 

Speech, and the word adname, being prefixed as a distinctive term, to 
fcnark the species or subdivision. 

Another example. John bought this book and left that. Here the 
word this is used only as an adname to distinguish and particularize the 
object denoted by the name fo>o&, to which it refers and on which it de- 
pends ; while the word that is not prefixed to any name : but is, itself, 
substituted for the name book, to prevent the inelegant and ungram- 
matical repetition of it. It is therefore a substitute to the full extent of 
the substitute's office and influence ■: and at the same time it particu- 
larizes, like an adname, the object [the book] which is represented hy 
the word that, as a substitute. That, then, as used like bad, as used in 
the preceding example, belongs to the genus of words, or part of speech, 
called substitutes, and has the term adname prefixed to mark the species 
or subdivision— -to distinguish this class from the simple, the connective, 
or any other class of substitutes. 

Any word then, that is used to give the representation which an ad- 
name gives, and at the same time in the absence of the word to which 
it would as an adname belong, acts as a substitute for that name, is an 
adname substitute, as remarked on page 64, and all the specifying ad- 
names of the language except a, an, the, every, very, and said ; and all 
the primary qualifying adnames, may be used in such a manner as to 
become adname substitutes, and should be thus used whenever they can 
clearly express the sense. {See page 64.] This is the simplicity and 
consistency of fact and philosophy, in using words as they should be used y 
according to their meaning. 

That it is totally inconsistent with the idiom of the language, with the 
the elegance, the strength, and dignity of style, to repeat the name or 
noun where the adname substitute can consistently with fulness and 
perspicuity, represent it, all must sec who are not as blind as the dead. 

Let the following serve as an illustration : Seth and Henry brought 
with them from the east, five Canary birds. They gave one of them to 
Maria ; one of them to William; one of them to me; and kept the re- 
maining two as theirs. 

This sentence is full, perspicuous, and perfect. Yet according to the 
rules of all the old theories, (G. Brown's not excepted.) this sentence, to 
be grammatically complete, must stand — Seth and Henry brought with 
them from the east five Canary birds. They gave one Canary bird of 
them to Maria ; one Canary bird of them to William ; one Canary 
tdrd of them to me, and kept the remaining two Canary birds as then 
Canary birds, or theirs Canary birds /If this version of the above elegant 
sentence is grammatical (and it is according to all the old theories), 
what grand productions must the theories be, that pronounce them so ! 
What marvellous intellects must have been engaged for the last three 
hundred years in producing these standard icorks in their present state of 
perfection! What an effulgent train ! what a grand constellation in 
science ! these authors have, in person exhibited, and do still exhibit, to 
the admiring gaze of a grammar -delighted universe ! Con-science ! ! 

With respect to the possessive adjective pronouns of Murray and 
others, I have only to say, if, in the examples " his book, her glove, and 
the like, the words his and her are adjectives in sense," then in the ex- 
amples John's book : Maria's glove : the names John's and Maria's, ar« 

29 



388 ADNAME SUBSTITUTE — ADJECTIVE PRONOUN 

adjectives to the same extent, and this would preclude the possibility of a 
nouns' or any ot her word's ever being in the possessive case- — John gave 
me his book. I received Johns book. Here it is seen that both terras 
his and John's — alike represent the man John, and both sustain the same 
relation to the name book. Then although one is a name and the 
other a substitute ; yet if his is an adjective, because referring to and 
depending on the name book, then is also the name John's, for the same 
reason. If John's is a word in the possessive case denoting the possessor 
of the book, then is also the substitute his ; for it represents the same 
possessor of the same thing. 

N. B. The difference between a name or a substitute and an adname 
is this. An adname never represents an object distinct from the one de- 
noted by the word to which it belongs and on which it depends : as 
John gave me this apple. Here it is seen that the term this does not repre- 
sent any object, but particularizes the object which is denoted or repre- 
sented by the term apple. John gave me his apple. Here it is seen that 
the word his, though exerting a kind of descriptive influence (as all words 
in a sentence necessarily do), represents, nevertheless, an object distinct 
from the one denoted by the word apple, on which it depends ; represents 
the man who owned or had the apple. His, can not, therefore, be an ad- 
name or adjective. John gave me a white hat. Here the term white 
does not represent an object distinct from the thing [the hat] denoted by 
the name hat on which white depends. It can not then be a name or 
substitute. It represents an inherent and adherent quality of the thing 
denoted by the name hat, on which it depends. It is therefore an ad- 
name. John : which colour do you prefer 1 " I prefer white.' 11 Here it 
is seen that the term white does not represent the colour as pertaining, 
or adhering to any thing, but represents, abstractedly, a colour merely as 
an object of contemplation. White then, as here used, is a name — an 
abstract name. 

So, when I say " John bought some iron ;" the term iron is a name. 
Yet, when I say " John bought an iron chest ;" the term iron is not used 
as before to denote the object purchased. The term chest does that : and 
the term iron is now an adname, as it does not represent an object dis- 
tinct from the thing denoted by the name chest on which it depends : but 
the quality of the thing denoted by that name ; — the material of which 
the chest is composed — made. 

If then the possessive adjective pronouns of Murray, Wright, and 
others, are not pure pronouns or substitutes in the possessive case, as 
they all represent them in their declension of the pronouns, there 
can be no possessive case in this or any other language. If those words 
are adjectives or adnames, it is utterly impossible, in the nature of things, 
to draw the line of distinction between names or substitues and ad- 
names.* 

* In the Greek and Latin and other languages (besides ours), there are 
adname substitutes or " adjective pronouns," because in those languages (as 
it is inculcated in this theory concerning the English), in the absence of the 
names, the adnames are parsed as substitutes in the places of those names : 
and not according to our " English Grammars /" (so called), parsed as adjec- 
tives belonging to the names understood. The greatest objection to the Greek 
and the Latin Grammars in this respect, is, that they direct calling the specifying. . 



AS3ERTERS OF VERBS. 339 

LECTURE IIL 
ASSERTERS OR VERBS. 

The term verb, is, to a tyro in English Grammar, as senseless as any 
other term that has been, or can be used. The Latinist, swelling like 
<4 Dame Frog" of the fable that burst herself in showing her offspring 
how large the ox was, tells us, that " this part of speech is so called from 
the term verbum — a word."— If the term verbum, that is, (by contrac- 
tion,) verb, really means to the Latinist, a word, (and of this there is no 
doubt,) and is the best term that can be used to distinguish that part of 
speech ; why do you not give to the English student a term which to 
him would mean what the term verbum means to the Latinist? In 
short, why not call that part of speech " the word." 

Why do you call it a verb or word ? " Because" (the old grammarians 
say) " this verb or word is the most important word in every sentence" 
— a pretence that has been echoed from one hollow substance to another 
for a long series of years. Is this fact"? I ask, is not the name or sub- 
stitute by far the most important word in the sentence — a word, without 
which a verb or asserter is seldom used. Suppose that when dining, 
I find myself in want of something; and, being limited to one part of 
speech, and thinking like my friends, the old grammarians ! that " the 
verb is the most important ;" I say to the waiter or person in attendance, 
" Give." «» Give." V Giv«/" Would he not begin to think " you fool : 
what would you have me give you v<i Yet let me say " Bread," <k Water," 
*' Fowl," and he will, without any further expression of my desire, un- 
derstand what I want. 

Who does not know that objects must have existed, and been named 
or described, by some appellation, before it could be possible to make 
any remark respecting them, and of course before the verb or asserter 
could have been used 1 Besides, almost all of the sentiments that man 
can conceive may be expressed (though in an awkward way) without the 
use of an asserter or verb. These facts prove conclusively that the 
noun or name is the most important part of speech ; and that if any 
one of them should, from its superior importance, be called verbum, or 
verb, or *• the word, 11 it should be, not the one which is so called, but 
the noun or name. 

What is the office, business, or influence of the verb 1 All writers 

adjectives or adnames adjective pronouns, even where they act only as specify- 
ing adnames and belong to the names expressed in the sentence. 

It is remarkable that oar sage essayists on English Grammar should be still 
more absurd, for their rules concerning adjective pronouns, or pronominal ad- 
jectives, preclude the possibility of their being used at all as substitutes or 
pronouns ; as these rules teach that the adjective pronouns ! belong to names 
or nouns [expressed or understood /] Then, if the names are put in and the 
adjective pronouns belong to the names, they can not, Of course, be pronouns 
or substitutes in the place of those names, as the Greeks and Latins parse 
them : so that our authors ! in introducing the practice of calling words ad- 
jective pronouns, bring it from the Greek and Latin without introducing with 
it the only principle that can constitute them what they are called. 



340 ASSERTERS OR VERBS. 

agree that the verb is the principle of the language which asserts of 
affirms ; that it is the part of speech without which there can be no 
assertion or affirmation, 

Oid grammarians tell us that "the verb signifies to he, to do, or to suf- 
fer, (or to be acted upon,)" or that it expresses existence or action. 

The fact is simply this ; that the verb or asserter, and that only, can, 
taken with a name or substitute, constitute an assertion. Its business 
is to assert, and the fact of its asserting existence, action, or effect, is 
only, as the Latinist might say — " ex necessitate rei," ox from the neces- 
sity of the case ; as it is impossible to assert or affirm any thing of a 
subject of remark without asserting either existence or action ; influ- 
ence or effect. 

It is then to be called an asserter, because it asserts, and it matters 
not what the principle or fact asserted is ; just as we call a man a singer, 
not because he sings songs or hymns, or abstract tunes, but because he 
sings ; for the fact that he sings songs or hymns, or abstract tunes, is 
merely from the necessity of the case, inasmuch as he can not sing, 
without singing one or the other of them. 

Here, then, it is seen, that all the old grammars have defined this part 
of speech, not from its office, but from the effect of its officiating — from 
the consequence instead of the immediate cause. [I wish they had 
named it, even on a principle no more exceptionable than that on which 
they have defined it 1] 

" But," say the devotees before the shrine of Murray, "do these- 
words always assert ?" I answer " No." " Then are they always 
asserters ]" Allow me the New Englander's mode of reply. Tell me > 
Sir ; what is oak T You say " it is a tree of the genus Quercus," [that 
is, of the genus oak !} What have you in your hand ? " A cane or 
walking stick," Of what kind of wood is it formed I " Oak, Sir ; of 
the species glandifera," [that is, of the species bearing acorns.] Tell 
me, Sir, is your cane an oak tree, and does it bear acorns 1 "No." 
Then is your cane oak of the species bearing acorns, if it neither is a 
tree nor bears acorns. "Yes, it is oak, just as much as though it was 
now growing with acorns on it." Why I " Because it is made of the 
timber of that kind of trees, and so it is called oak. No matter into what 
the timber is formed ; it is oak still, just as much in a walking stick, as 
when it was growing in a tree. Oak, Sir, is a kind of tree, and the 
timber is always oak, let it be used for what it may*'* 

You have answered, by this, the question which you required me to 
answer. The asserter is so called because in its natural place or 
primary form it is used to assert ; that is, when it is in the present tens© 
of the declarative mode, and depends on the word I, as, I lore, I write? 
I walk. 

It may be used for something besides positive, plain, downright asser- 
tion ; as, to interrogate, to command. Yet, however it may be used, it 
conveys the idea of the same fact, that in in its primary form it asserts, 
as, Do I love 1 May I write ? referring to the acts which were asserted 
by me when I used the piimary form. 

Every thing in this theory is named from its chief or general business : 
and inasmuch as the distinctive term marks the genus of words,, they 
are ajl known by that distinctive term : as much as the timber of the 



Participles. 341 

cane is known by the name of the tree in its own natural place. The 
different species of this genus of words, called asserters, are known by 
the names of the modes which represent their various uses. 

PARTICIPLES. 

If any word which " signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon/' is a 
verb or asserter, then all the " participles " are pure verbs or asserters. 
Thus, John saw Henry running home. Here running, as it is used, 
asserts the action of Henry, as much as run, in the next example. I 
saw Henry run home. Both alike signify action or " to do." Both alike 
then are verbs. 

Will the old theorists pretend that the participle is so called because 
it participates the natures of two parts of speech — the verb and adjective 
or adname] If every word that partakes the nature of two parts of 
speech, is to be called a participle ; then we have an abundance of them ; 
as the Assertive-name, which partakes the nature of an asserter and a 
name, the Interrooative-substitute, the Connective-substitute, the Ad- 
name-substitute, the Assertive-adname, the Exclamatory-adname, the 
Modifying-adname, the Interrogative-adname and the Modify ing-con- 
nective. All these are participles, as they all partake the properties of 
the parts of speech whose names they respectively bear. The term 
participle should never be applied to mark a particular species ; as it is 
seen from these exemplifications, that it is capable of describing only 
one common trait of many species. 

Besides, it is not fact, that the participles when used so as to be parsed 
as participles, by the old theorists, have any participating trait. They 
are pure verbs, or asserters. «' O !" says the old theorist, •« we call them 
participles because they may belong- to names like adjectives or adnames, 
as a blooming rose." Yes ! old friend : I understand you now ! You 
call them participles because they may be so used as to be parsed as 
belonging, not to the class called participles, but to those called adjec- 
tives. You parse them participles when pure verbs, because they may 
be so used as to become adjectives or adnames! In the example given, 
you would not parse blooming as a participle, but as an adjective or 
adname. So then we are to call blooming a participle because it may be 
so used that we may parse it as an adname. Grammatical consistency ! 
The old Grammars' Uni-form ! ! 

Mark this ! — what all grammarians know. When the English words 
called participles are so used that even you would parse them as such, 
they are pure verbs or asserters ; as, I saw John injured. This word, 
injured, asserts the receiving of injury by John as much as the following 
verb. John was injured. And the former shows no more the character, 
kind, quality, or condition of John, than the latter. If one is a verb or 
asserter both are. If one is a participle both are. 

Besides, if blooming is a participle because it may become an adjective, 
we may, on the same principle, give any word one name, because it may 
become another part of speech. Thus, on this principle, love, a verb, may 
be called a participle because it may become an adjective, as, a love story : 
or it may be called an adjective, because it may be used as a name ; as, 
I value, as I should, the love of friends. 

39* 



242 DISTINCTIONS OF VERBS OR ASSERTERSv 



DISTINCTIONS OF TERBS OR ASSERTERS. 

tl Verbs are of three kinds, Active, Passive, and Neuter." — Old Grams. 
I will prove that according to the definition of the neuter verb, all 
qualifying adjectives or adnames, are neuter verbs — -that all verbs are 
neuter and yet not neuter — that, according to the definition of the active 
verb, all passive verbs are active^ and almost all neuter are active also — 
that according to the definition of the passive verb, all the verbs called 
active, or active transitive, are pure passive verbs ; and that many called 
active, and many called passive, are neither. Thus, 

" An active verb expresses action." [This is the reason why it is 
called active]. — Old Grams. 

" A passive verb expresses a passion ! a suffering I or the receiving of 
an action, and necessarily implies an object acted upon." — Old Grams. 

" A. neuter verb expresses neither action or passion, but being, or a 
state of being." — Old Grams. 

Exemplification— John walks. Henry breathes. I ate an apple. 
James relieved William. An apple was eaten by me. William was re- 
lieved by James. 

Here the first two verbs or asserters, Murray, Wright, and many 
others would call neuter. And yet, if any verb expresses action, walks 
and breathes do : and according to the principle of naming the active 
verb are fully active. The next two would be called active verbs, and 
yet, according to t&e definition of the passive, they are purely, fully, pas- 
sive verbs ; for ate expresses the act received or endured by the apple, 
and performed by the agent or acting cause ; and relieved expresses the 
action received or endured by William, the assistance rendered by James 
as the agent or acting cause. Ate and relieved are active, according to 
the definition of the active ; and passive, according to the definition of the 
passive. The apple was eaten by me. William was relieved by James. 
Here, was eaten, and was relieve'/, are active verbs as much as any 
verbs can be, according to the definition ; for they express action, and 
have "the agents and objects acted upon," expressed. They are pure 
passive verbs, for they express the receiving, by the apple, of the act of 
eating, performed by rne, and of the receiving, by William, the act of re- 
lieving performed by James. 

Cain killed Abel. Here, killed is an active verb, from its expressing 
the action of an agent on an object ; and passive from its expressing the 
action received by Abel, and performed by Cain, according to the defini- 
tion of the passive. Abel was killed by Cain. Here, vias killed is a 
passive verb from its expressing an act, received by an object, and per- 
formed by an agent, according to the definition of the passive ; and yet, 
it is a pure active verb because expressing action as much as any verb 
can, and that act is represented as extending from the doer [Cain] to 
the object, [Abel,] according to the definition of the active verb. 

John owns a house. Here owns, as used, would be called an active 
verb, (and an active verb expresses action,) while yet all must see, at the 
first glance, that there is no kind of action expressed or implied. The 
house is owned by John. Here is owned is called passive, because 
denoting the receiving of an action by some object* ftooi some agen.t. — 



DISTINCTIONS OF VERBS OR ASSERTERS. 343 

Yet all must see that according to the definition of the passive verb, is 
owned has no claim to being called passive — can not be passive. 

John possesses a farm. He keeps a watch-dog. He has a book. These 
verbs are all called active, yet they do not possess the first principle of 
an active verb ; as they do not express or imply any kind of action what- 
ever. 

John breathes with difficulty. He ran to the field. He walked to Utica. 
These asserters, are by Murray and some others, called neuter. And all 
see clearly that they all express action, and are of course active verbs. 

" A neuter verb expresses neither action nor passion V [receiving or 
enduring] " but being or a state of being." 

I breathe. I run. I walk. The bird flies. The fish swims. If to 
be a neuter verb it is necessary that the verb shall not express action, 
then neither of these verbs can be neuter, (though they are all called so) 
for they all express action. If all that is necessary to constitute a verb 
neuter, is, that it shows being or a state of being, let us see to what this 
will lead. John is happy. Here is is a neuter verb ; because expressive 
of the being or existence of John — and happy is a neuter verb, because 
expressive of his state of being. If the negative part of the definition of 
a neuter verb is to be admitted, then nine-tenths of the verbs parsed by 
M. snl his copiers, as neuter verbs, can not be neuter, because denoting 
action. 

If the first part of the definition is to be annulled for being inconsis- 
tent with the use or application of the term neuter, then the other part's 
being the definition would make it include all verbs of every description. 
Thus, John runs — Henry sleeps. Runs and sleeps express being, 
plainly enough ; and express also, very fully, the state of being of the 
two persons. These then, are neuter verbs. I met a szc/v friend. . Here 
the adname sick expresses the state of being, and is a neuter verb. The 
apple is eaten. Here, is eaten, expresses fully the apple's existence, or 
being, and its state of being at the same time. Is eaten is, then, a neu- 
ter verb. I saw John running home. Here, running is a neuter verb. 
I saw Henry selling goods. Selling is an active verb, it expresses ac- 
tion. It is a passive verb, because it expresses an action performed 
by Henry, and received by the goods, as the objects " acted upon." All 
passive verbs are then active, according to the definition of the active. 
All active verbs are neuter, unless the first part of the definition of the 
neuter is to be admitted ; and to admit that part of the definition — to ad- 
mit that a neuter verb must not express action, &c, is to exclude from 
the neuter all the neuter verbs in the language except three ; am, exist, 
and live. 

Some writers call such verbs as rim and walk, active intransitive verbs ; 
and such as sell, strike, and others admitting after them words in the ob- 
jective case, active transitive verbs. This may obviate the absurdity of 
calling those neuter which really express action ; but it does not hide the 
glaring absurdity of calling such verbs as, hold, possess, keep, and the 
like, active transitive, or active verbs ; while it is seen that they express 
no kind of action, whatever. 

It is a lamentable fact that the old theorists — [Lindley Murray being 
in this matter, a grand exception ;] inculcate the principle of parsing 



344 DISTINCTIONS Otf VERBS OR ASSERTERSV 

horses, eattle, and men ! as well as the words of a sentence : for, Hear 
Smith ! 

" The active verb expresses action, and the actor is always in the 
nominative case" Example. A dog bit Henry. Here the word bit is an 
active verb— expressing action ; and as the animal that bit the boy was 
the actor, that animal is, of course, in the nominative case ! 

Another ! A passive verb expresses an action or effect received, and 
the object is always its subject or nominative. Smith : You say on page 
11, the objective case denotes the object. Yet here, page 62, you say, 
the object is always the subject or nominative. John beats Wiliiam. 
The name John is here in the nominative case", because denoting (not 
being) the actor ; and the name William is in the objective case, because 
denoting the object, according to your book, page 11 ; and in the nomi- 
native case for the selfsame reason, according to your book, page 62. 

Beats is an active verb, because expressing action ; and a passive verb, 
because " expressing action received." 

William was beaten by John. Here according to your book, page 62, 
the name William is in the nominative case, because denoting the object, 
and according to your book, page 11, it is in the objective case, because 
denoting (being, yo u say,) the object. 

Was beaten is an active, because "expressing action," and passive, 
because expressing " action received," John is in the objective case, and 
governed by the preposition " by ;" and yet, as that name denotes the 
doer or actor, it must be in the nominative case. 

Hear Kirkham ! " An active verb expresses action, and the nomina- 
tive case is the actor or subject of the verb ; as, John writes." 4< In this 
example," (he says to the pupil) " The word writes expresses action, 
and is therefore an active verb, and the noun John is the actor." That 
is, Kirkham, if you mean as you say, the combination of letters J-o-h-n. 
or the sound which they represent, does the writing! for you say the 
noun is the actor : that is, the writer : and the " actor, doer, or producer of 
the action is the nominative." An active verb expresses action, and the 
doer, actor, or producer of the action is the nominative." Abel was 
killed by Cain. Here was killed expresses action, and the man Cain is 
represented as the doer or actor : the man Cain must then, according to 
these premises, be in the nominative case — although every one knows 
that the name Cain is in the objective case. 

Can any man be so blind as to pretend, that the name and the object 
denoted by it are one] If this is fact ; then, when I say I sent, in a 
letter, to Henry, the name of the person whom I wished to have him 
visit, (according to your manner of parsing the object, Gentlemen 
Essayists,) instead of the name denoting the object, I must mean 
that I sent the person, the man or woman, whom I wished to have Henry 
visit. Allowing your language to be correct, and allowing my friend 
to weigh one hundred and fifty pounds, will you calculate the postage 
on my letter ; that being estimated at the rate of fifty cents per 
ounce 1 ! ! 

N. B. G. Brown is not less erroneous than the others in any of these 
absurdities, and in some parts he is worse. He represents that persons 
and things are to be parsed as well as their names. Besides, he defines 



DISTINCTIONS OF VERBS OR ASSERTERS. 345 

his regular and his irregular verb, by talking of his preterit and perfect par- 
ticiple, without having told the pupil what the preterit and perfect par- 
ticiple are ! So when the pupil has gone the whole round, when he has 
read " A regular verb forms its preterit and perfect participle by adding 
d, or ed," he knows what, a regular verb is just as well as he did before : 
like the good old gentleman who sent the traveler to the next house, 
which was his brother's barn, shingled with straw, that could inform 
the traveler as well as the old man himself! for after having read, not 
learned, what the regular verbs or asserters are, viz. " those that form 
their preleiit and perfect participles, &c," he has to turn four pages 
forward, to learn what the preterit is, and thirty pages forward to learn 
what a perfect participle is.!! 

As in the grammatical construction of words in sentences, no distinc- 
tion is necessary between the strictly neuter and the active intransitive 
verbs ; and as the term active is never necessary, and sometimes absurd 
and burdensome in its application to verbs, as ail neuter verbs (so 
called) are intransitive, but all intransitive verbs are not neuter; and, 
farther, as scientific truth and practical convenience require that each 
class or subdivision of words should be represented by some name 
whose meaning will include all the words of that class or subdivision, I 
hav& the Intransitive asserter which asserts either, only the existence of 
the subject, of remark ; as, I am: or an action or effect of the subject which 
is not transitive or passing {over ! the old theorists say) from the sub- 
ject, to an object ; as, I run: I walk : Truth will prevail : 

The Transitive asserter, which asserts an action, influence, or effect (of 
the subject of remark) that is transitive or passing (either really or figu- 
ratively) from the subject to some object ; as, John struck James. James 
forgave John : and, 

The Receptive asserter, which (figuratively or in fact) asserts the recep- 
tion, by the subject of remark, of an action or effect from some extraneous 
cause. As James was struck (by John). John was forgiven (by James). 

The fact that this asserter represents the receiving or reception — (by 
the subject of remark) of the act or influence denoted by it, is reason 
sufficient/or "calling it receptive, and for not calling it passive, which latter 
term has, to the English student, no meaning at all, in relation to the 
nature of these distinctions. Besides, the definition of the passive verb, 
as given by the old theorists, is, if possible, worse than the name. 

Thus, " A passive verb expresses a passion; a suffering; or the 
receiving of an action." [The term passion, to the English scholar, 
has a meaning very different from the one here intended,] as* John was 
struck by James. The student would be more likely to think John in a 
passion than James. [Mr. W. says, "A passive verb represents an object 
as under a passion I or suffering, &c] Young students are generally 
more or less in a passion, or under its influence, when forced to drill at 
the absurdities of the old theories, which are seldom understood, and 
never practised. 

" Or a suffering." I am loved, I am honored, I am rewarded, 
for my labor. What "suffering"! the man who can say this, 
must be i{ enduring." I like such tribulations and suffering, I assure 
the old theorists ; and could endure them without the fortitude of a 
martyr in the flames — without " suffering " one ten thousand-times-ten- 



346 MODE. 

thousandth part of what I have " suffered," when a school-boy, in 
studying their theories ; moving like a blind man fettered, through a 
dismal swamp, going over mounds, into and out of sloughs, guided only 
by marked trees, which when allowed to guide, almost always made me 
stray. I found my "passions" excited often enough, by the "suffering " 
which the old grammarians' insufferable terms and principles inflicted 
on me, without enabling me to " receive" anything — (of science) what- 
ever I may have '* endured." And yet, I have been only one of the mil- 
lions of " sufferers," who have studied the old theories. 

MODE, 

Is defined to be the form of the verb, or asserter, or the manner in 
which it is to be used to show, independently of time, how a fact is to 
be regarded. 

44 The Indicative mode simply indicates or declares a thing, as He loves, 
He is loved, or it asks a question! as, Does he love? Is he loved?" 
The term Indicative is less expressive of what the first part of this defi- 
nition represents than the term Declarative. Indicate is a medium term, 
between intimate and declare. It is often used synonymously with the 
former, but never with the latter. Then, as the business of this mode 
is to declare that the fact denoted by the principle asserter, has occurred, 
is occurring, or shall or will occur ; / choose the word dtdaraiive as the 
term of distinction. 

44 The indicative mode simply indicates or declares a thing, or it asks 
a question "! The latter part of this definition is remarkably inconsistent 
with the name indicative. The indicative mode asks a question! Never ! 
I say ''Will John go home 1 " Do I indicate any thing by this expres- 
sion ; in relation to his going] Nothing. Is Henry at home] Here 
is no indication. But a plain interrogation. This manner of using the 
verb or asserter, I call interrogative, because it interrogates. 

Thus, Declarative mode, John will go home. Interrogative, Will 
John go home ? 

Tell a child what Mode means, and then ask him what the Declara- 
tive or the Interrogative mode expresses ; and he can tell you, without 
having read the definition of either : because the distinctive terms are 
fully indicatory of the offices of the two modes. 

Will the old theorist pretend that mode means only the form of 
the verbl Admit it, and what follows] Then love, in the example, I 
love ; though in the declarative mode, is also in the commanding or im- 
perative mode, and in the infinitive, because the same form which is in 
that example, is also in the following — Children of men, love your ene- 
mies. Love thou the Lord. I bid John love his neighbors. 80, if 
mode means only form, the old grammarians should commence remo- 
delling their works immediately; for they all (however they, define it) 
treat it as though it meant (what it does mean) arrangement in relation 
to the word on which it depends, as well as form. To assume the 
ground that mode means form only, would strike into annihilation the 
old theorists' imperative, and their infinitive mode, in a twinkling. 

" The Potential mode implies possibility, liberty, power, will, necessity, 
or obligation."— Old Grammars ! 



MODE. 347 

Here they have used as a distinctive term, potential, which can only 
mean relating or pertaining to power : [or, as the Latinist would say — 
" It comes from potens — able or powerful ; thence, potentia — power or 
ability ; thence, potentialis — which means, relating or pertaining to 
power; thence potential, the English word of the same meaning ] 

Potential means, relating to power; and yet,, the old grammarians 
have forced it to represent rive other particulars, all different from power, 
and from each other — possibility, liberty, will, necessity, and obligation: 
like my saying, " my watch-key is a maiden instrument, because it is 
made of six different kinds of metal in equal proportions — gold, platina, 
silver, zinc, copper, and lead !" A grand reason, truly ! for calling it a 
golden key. 

What is the grand characteristic of this mode 1 It is, that it never 
represents, that the fact denoted by the principal asserter, has been done, 
is being done, or shall or will be done, [hereafter, of course]; but only 
gives grounds for inferring something in relation to that fact. Thus, 
when I say, "John can walk," I do not pretend that he has walked, is 
walking, or ever will walk ; but give grounds for the hearer to infer his 
ability to walk. When I say, " John should pay his debts," I do not 
pretend that he has paid, is paying, or ever will nay them : but give 
grounds for inferring his obligation to pay them. When I say, I can 
write, I give grounds for inferring my ability to write, without express- 
ing that I have ever done what the asserter expresses :[the act of writing] 

Because this mode never express'es the accomplishment of the fact 
which the principal verb or asserter denotes, but always gives grounds 
for inferring something in relation to that fact, I call it the inferential 
mode, or mode of inference. [See the subsequent Contrast of Modes.] 

So we have the Declarative mode ; as, John will write ; and the In- 
terrogative mode formed from it ; as, Will John write ? the Inferential 
mode, as, John can write, — He should write ; and the Interrogative form- 
ed from that ; as, Can John write 1 Should he write 1 

" Imperative mode." The term imperative, is not so expressive of 
the sense as commanding. I therefore choose the latter ; caliing the im- 
perative, the commanding mode, because its chief use is to express com- 
mand ; though it may be used to express something else, and may be 
used in an absolute sense, or independent of a word in the subjective case, 
as, "Let a man's estate be what it may, he is a poor man if he does not 
live within his income." This sentence, so full, has in it the asserter 
let, which is in the commanding mode, being the same form and manner 
in which I should use it when really addressing a command to some ob- 
ject : but as it is here used, independently of a subjective word, it is said 
to be in the commanding mode absolute. This, according to the old 
theories, must, to be parsed, stand thus ; " Do thou let a man's estate to 
be what it may be — or the thing, it may be which, or which thing ! !•' See 
the note on page 208, the remarks on the commanding mode absolute, 
page 80, and remarks on transformations of sentences, page near the 
close of the appendix. 

The commanding mode may be used to express desire, exhortation, 
entreaty, or persuasion, and may depend on a word of the third person ; 
as, " Our Father who art in heaven ; Hallowed be thy name. Thy king- 
dom come. Thy will be done." Long live the good and great. 



348 MODE. 

The " subjunctive mode!" What can subjunctive mean 1 "Oh!" 
says the Latinist, " it comes from sub, meaning under or after, andjungo 
to join. So that it means the subjoining mode or the mode that 
subjoins something ; but we say it means subjoined mode, or mode 
joined under or after something." The English dictionary informs us 
that it means subjoined or added," so that, as subjunctive means sub- 
joined or added, and mode means the form or manner ; the subjunctive 
mode must mean the subjoined form or manner of the verb. Well, what 
does the subjoined form or manner mean? Why ! it means the sub- 
junctive mode : do you not understand 1 Yes, I understand that one 
means the ether, and the other means that. While, with respect to the 
use or office of the mode, neither of them means anything. They are 
like the two fabled serpents, that began and continued swallowing 

EACH OTHER, UNTIL BOTH WERE SWALLOWED, AND NOTHING WAS LEFT OF 
' EITHER ! ! 

" Strange ! sir, that you should not have understood me. It is called 
subjoined or [why call it then 1] subjunctive, because it expresses motive, 
wish, suppostion, &c." 

What connexion has motive, wish, or supposition, with the term sub- 
junctive ! " O ! it is called subjunctive, because it is subjoined to some- 
thing else." 

So is every following word subjoined to the preceding one ; and do 
you call all words following others " subjunctive words," or words m 
the " subjunctive model" "No." 

Why then do you call this subjunctive 1 Be consistent. 

11 It has always been called so, and it would make great trouble to at- 
tempt to change the general opinion, even though it is erroneous." 

A most grand reason this ! very argumentative ! But, let me tell 
you that although you imagine that your subjunctive mode is subjoined, 
yet the other mode is necessarily subjoined to that ; as, " If ye believe 
not that I am he, ye shall die in your sins." — Bible. Here your asserter 
in the [prejunctive, not] subjunctive mode, believe, stands before the other 
verb instead of being subjoined. " If John will carry me home, I will 
give him a dollar." Will carry, the subjunctive verb, occurs before the 
other, and is not, of course, subjoined to it ; and in ail cases where the 
idea of a condition or supposition is to be expressed by your "subjunctive" 
mode, the mode (or verb in it) must be prejoined, not subjoined to the 
other asserter. '* Though he shall slay me, yet will I trust in him." 

Having shown that the name subjunctive does not express the office of 
the verb, and not even its place when it expresses condition or supposi- 
tion ; that, if it is proper to call it subjunctive merely because it follows 
something to which it is subjoined in expressing supposition ; all sub- 
sequent words, or words following others, may as properly be called sub- 
junctives : let me now proceed to show, that such a mode as that which 
is called subjunctive, never existed — that there is not properly any such 
mode in the language. 

First, let me remark, that the modes bearing other names include 
every form in which the verb can properly be used. Next, and conse- 
quently, that every verb used in a manner different from the others, is a 
violation of sense, reason, or propriety. 

Example. — " If I were to write, he would not regard it." 



MODE. 349 

In this short sentence, approved by all the old grammarians! I will show- 
four grammatical errors ! [errors when judged by the principles of cor- 
recting — grammatical, in part, according to their books.] First, the word 
if is used in the place of though, ; the latter word being properly used to 
express supposition ; and if, to express condition. See page 175, re- 
marks on if and though. The sentence would, thus corrected, stand, 
" Though I were to write, &c." Next, they use the plural form of the 
verb, and yet make it agree ! with singular nominative or subjective 
word — which is a violation of my rules, 2 and 3, page 122, and even the 
rule of the old theorists, themselves— " A veib must agree with its no- 
minative in number and person ;" as, in saying, " though I were to 
write," they use a nominative of the first person " singular number,'* 
with a " verb of the third person, plural number." — Another error 
according to their own rules. This violation with respect to both per- 
son and number, may be set down as two. Next, they use a past 
tense [one error] and a present tense [according to their grammars s 
another error] to represent an event that is totally indefinite with respect 
to time ; for, in the expression, " though I were to write," &c, no dis- 
tinction of time is thought of; and they should, of course, use the indefi- 
nite tense to represent the matter ; as, Though I should write yet he 
would not regard it ; yet should write is in their past tense. 

If is wrongly used in lieu of though — one error. Were is the third 
person plural according to their rules, and should not of course agree i 
with the first person singular — two additional errors. Were is a past 
tense ; and they have no rule by which a past tense can be applied to in- 
definite time. Here then is another error, which makes four. All these 
are errors in fact. Then I may mention another — that is, to write, ac- 
cording to their theories, is in the present tense, and yet they apply that 
to the event considered indefinitely with respect to time — another error, 
if their theories are correct ; making four errors, at all events, in that 
short sentence : and five, if their principles of the present tense of the 
infinitive mode, are correct. I prove in the remarks on tenses, that this 
principle is erroneous. 

Although Murray gives his conjugation of the subjunctive mode, pre- 
sent tense — If I be loved, if thou be loved, if he be loved ; and the imper- 
fect (a past) tense, If I were loved, if thou wert loved, if he were loved, 
&c. ; yet, most strange ! he says, that neither the present tense [de- 
noting present time,] nor the imperfect [denoting past time,] is ever to 
be used, except when the event to be represented by the asserter is both 
contingent and future. That is, you must never use the present or past 
tense of this mode, except when it will represent a future event. [Query, 
Why then does he not call it a future tense 1] 

The following examples Murray condemns :— although they are ex- 
actly in accordance with his subjunctive mode — If she be sincere. If he 
allow the excellence of virtue. If thou live virtuously. Though he were 
rich ; yet for our sake he became poor. These asserters M. contends 
should be is, for be ; allows, for allow ; lives* for live ; was, for were. 

The Old Grams, say, Mode is the form of the verb. I say, John will 
carry me home. Here will carry is parsed in the indicative mode : while, 
in the example, If John will carry me home, I will give him a dollar ; 
will carry is parsed in the subjunctive mode. Yet all see the asserter will 

30 



350 MODE. 

carry in the same form, and used in the same manner, in this example, 
as in the other. In both examples the asserter, with its nominative* 
stands thus : John will carry ; the name John standing first ; then the 
auxiliary wilU and then the principal asserter carry. 

Then, if mode means form, or manner, and the asserter, will carry, 
is in the same form, and used in the same manner, in both examples, 
why, I ask, do these grammatical sages ! parse the asserter in one ex- 
ample in the Indicative mode, and in the other, in the Subjunctive ; when 
the facts clearly exhibit the asserter in the same form, and used in the 
same manner, in both examples ; and shows, of course, that as mode 
means form or manner, the asserter, in both examples, must be in the 
same mode 1 " Oh !" says the old theorist, " one is a conditional sen- 
tence and the other a positive one ; and hence the verb is said to be in 
the subjunctive mode, [Mr. Wright says conditional^ because expressing 
condition. 

In the sentence, If John will carry me home, I will give him a dollar? 
which word introduces the idea of condition, doubt 1 &c. 

Do you not see that it is the word if, and no other ? and yet you parse 
the asserter in the subjunctive mode, which is used in the same form and 
manner, as when it was parsed Indicative ; merely because some other 
word (if) introduces the idea of condition. Thus you credit to the verb, 
or asserter, what is not done by that, but by if, and rob if of the honor 
of one half of its influence, by making it a mere conjunction, or connex- 
ion-, instead of a modifying connective, as it really is. 

Mark this ! " John will carry me home :" " I will give him a dollar." 
These two sentences are alike positive, unconditional: and the verb will 
carry, you parse in the Indicative mode : that is, the indicative form or 
manner. " If John will carry me home I will give him a dollar." Here 
the word If connects the two simple sentences, as much as though it 
stood between them. It is therefore a connective. It exerts a modify- 
ing influence on the two simple sentences, now united in compound ; 
representing those matters as conditional and contingent, which 
were before represented as positive. It is therefore a modifying con- 
nective. It represents the fact of John's carrying me home as the con- 
dition, on the fulfilment of which, the fact of my paying him a dollar 
(as a contingent matter) depends. If, then, the word if does this, and 
if the asserter has the same form, and is used in the same manner, in 
the conditional as in the positive sentence, shall we parse the asserter 
in the conditional or subjunctive mode, and call if only a connective (or 
conjunction!) while all see that if, if only, introduces the idea of con- 
dition 1 What of science is there in the old theorists, representing this 
affair so utterly at variance with fact ] 

Kirkham, however, with his usual weakness, writes thus : page 135. 
" The subjunctive mode expresses action, passion, or being, in a doubt- 
ful or conditional manner." Here, as mode is a quality, or property, 
pertaining only to the verb, he attributes to the verb only, the influence 
of expressing condition, doubt, &c. He then gives his examples for 
illustrating the fact, that the verb, in the subjunctive mode, expresses 
the idea of condition, doubt, &c, and directly under this, he has the fol- 
lowing note : — " The conjunctions if, though, unless, in the preceding 



MODE. 351 

Examples, express condition, doubt, &c. ; therefore (for this cause) 
the verbs are in the subjunctive mode." ! ! 

Here, then, is the analysis of the subjunctive or subjoined mode of the 
verb, and his subjunctive or subjoined note. The subjunctive mode of 
the verb, or the verb in the subjunctive mode, he says, expresses the 
condition, doubt, &c. Then he gives an illustration of the verb's doing 
it. Then, in referring to these very examples (where he has represent- 
ed, that the verbs express the condition, doubt, &c), he says, "the 
conjunctions if 9 though, and unless, express the condition, and there- 
fore, (that is, because the conjunctions do it,) the verbs are said to be in 
the subjunctive mode ! What logical, philosophical consistency ! ! 

If, then, that which expresses the condition, &c. is in the subjunctive 
mode, the conjunctions, not the verbs, must be in that mode ; though it 
is true that mode is a property or quality that was never attributed to the 
conjunction. In this matter Kirkham represents not only his own prin- 
ciples, but also those of the rest of the Old Grammar tribe, for they all 
without exception attribute to the verb or asserter what is really, accord- 
ing to their own admission, done by the conjunction or connective ; and 
then, after having credited to the verb the modifying influence that tbey 
admit is exerted by the conjunctions if, though, unless, and the like, they 
treat these as though they had no modifying power and were pure con- 
nectives or conjunctions ! ! Consistency I ! 

How then is this matter to be decided 1 It is thus, and only thus. 

The principles inculcated by rules 24 — 25 page 258 (see those rules) 
are admitted by all ; that in representing general facts that are always 
the same, we are to use the completive form of the present tense, and 
also when we would express what occurs occasionally or at regular in- 
tervals : as, The sun rises and sets without our agency. The epicure eats, 
drinks, revels, and sleep. . If, then, we would represent these and similar 
facts in a doubtful or contingent manner all that we need to do is to prefix 
the words expressing that condition, contingency or doubt, keeping the as- 
serters in the same form or tense and mode as before ; as, If a man hues 
only for the gratification of his animal propensities, he should not expect 
the joys of the good and great. If a child asks for fish, shall I give him 
a stone. When we would refer not to general, but to particular facts, 
without expressing the probability of their occurrence, we should use the 
indefinite tense of the inferential mode, preceded by a modifying con- 
nective, expressing the condition, contingency, <fec, or the same tense of 
the interrogative formed from the inferential ; as, If John should pay his 
debts he would again be respected. Should a man declare his dissenfc 
from the established maxims of the age, without being able to vindicate 
his principles he would ensure the contempt of his former associates. 

In the latter example there is no conjunction either "expressed orun- 
derstood," (as the Old Grams, affirm.) The interrogative mode of the as- 
serter, used in the first of the two simples, comprised in the compound, 
is sufficient to introduce the condition, doubt, cause, &c, and the other 
member following, as it does, shows that condition, contingency or cause, 
not interrogation, is intended. To talk of a " conjunction understood " 
in this place is as rational as to suppose it in any other, for they always 
suppose it where it cannot, without the sacrifice of elegance, be ex~ 
pressed. 



852 MODE. 

Here I put the if understood. " If should John pay his debts, he 
would be respected.'' I know they will cry out against this and say 
" should he pay, means if he should pay." Admit it and see also that 
though if is necessarily used in the latter mode of expression ; it is 
not even "understood" in the former: for the interrogative mode expresses 
as much, in one example, as the inferential mode and the modifying con- 
nective in the other. 

When we would speak of a particular affair pertaining to the future, 
which we regard as in some degree probable, we should use a future 
tense of the declarative mode preceded by a modifying connective ; as, 
If John who is sick shall die, his wife will return to her father's. [See 
rules 26 — 27 page 261 ;] otherwise we should use the indefinite tense of 
the Inferential mode ; as, If James' vessel should he wrecked he would 
inevitably be lost. 

The old writers give examples of the subjunctive mode and give other 
modes to explain what is meant by the words in the subjunctive. Thus, 
" If John prove industrious and frugal he will be prosperous." " This," 
they say, " means if John shall prove industrious." " Though he run 
we can overtake him." " This," they say, "means though he shall run, 
&c." I have only to remark on this ; Gentlemen : will you always speak 
as you mean % Then your language will not need explanation. If so 
we shall see nothing of that interloper, the imaginary mode called the 
subjunctive. 

This mode, so called, is not only a violation of all sense, fullness, 
strength, unformity, and elegance but it sets at nought all the distinc- 
tions of tense and the forms of the asserter that are to be chosen in re- 
ference to the forms of their subjective words, or words in the nominative 
case. 

In other words, it overturns all the distinctions of tense and bids de- 
fiance to the rule, in the old grammars, which says, u A verb must agree 
with its nominative case in number and person." A " rule to which" G. 
Brown, [p. 148] and the other writers insist, "there are properly no excep- 
tions," and yet the rule can not co-exist correct, and inviolate with the 
subjunctive mode ! which they all most liberally patronize : and G. Brown, 
on page 56, adopts a principle that (according to his own arithmetical 
showing) would introduce 144000 exceptions to this very rule to which 
he says there can not properly be any ! ! Grammatical consistency ! ! ! 
What a gem ! [understood some where, of course, but never expressed 
in these theories]. 

In the example " If the wicked turn from his wickedness and do 
that which is lawful and right, he shall not die :" If there is a reference 
to a general and unvarying fact it should be " If the wicked man 
turns from his wickedness, does that, &c." Yet if we have the adname 
substitute wicked, used in the plural sense it must of course stand. — If 
the wicked turn from their wickedness ; turn being the plural form. — If in 
this matter there was reference to a particular man the auxiliary shall, 
should have been used with the first principal verb ; as, If he shall turn 
from his wickedness and do, &c. ; do being used without the auxiliary 
repeated according to rule 12 page 201. As, if you shall meet Henry 
and find him able to travel alone, you need not accompany him back. If 
any man will read these remarks on the subjunctive mode ! and examine 
the contrariety of principles of the old grammars originating in this prg- 



MODE. 353 

tended mode, and shall not see that the nante and nature of the mode 
should be — is, by reason, exploded, I shall think that he is incorrigible ! 

Infinitive mode. Infinitive means not limiting. Hence the old theorists 
define the mode. — " The infinitive expresses its subjects in a general and 
unlimited manner without any distinction of person or number ; as to act, 
to speak, to be feared." The old theorists have written as though 
u stark blind' 9 in relation to this matter ; for in no mood does the asserter 
express its subjects more limitedly, definitely, and in a more particularly 
manner than in this mode. Thus — I went to Utica to see William. 
What asserter can refer more particularly to the actor, and to the object 
of the action, than to see does. It is more limiting and particular in ex- 
pressing ideas than an asserter in any other mode, can be, for it expres- 
ses action as much as any one can, while it shows the intention or de^ 
sign of the act expressed by another asserter. 

No other mode of the asserter, is, then, so limiting in its office and in- 
fluence aa this : and yet they call it the un-\im\tmg mode, and define it 
in a manner totally at variance with fact [its expressing its subject in 
a general and unlimited manner, which all see it does not do]. 

If any one shall pretend that infinitive means unlimited I would say„ 
your definition does not even hint at such a meaning, but treats the name 
infinitive, (as the term, iteelf, indicates,) as though it meant, and meant 
only, not limiting. Even in that view of it the term would be exception 
able from the fact that its affinity to the term infinity, would be apt to 
make the pupil over-go in his estimation of the mode, as much as the 
other meaning would make him fall below its character; as he would 
then think the mode to be an infinite mode ; one unbounded in extent 
or variety. 

The grand cause of all this error among the old theorists and the one 
that has ever prevented their seeing the distinguishing trait at all, or in 
any degree, is this. They have named the other modes [they pretend 
and it is but a pretened~] from what they express in the sentence ; and, 
coming to this, they think that they must do the same. One mode is a 
mode for declaring, another commanding, another for interrogating, and 
another for expressing by way of inference, something, in relation to the 
fact expressed tjy the principal asserter ; while this may be used in con- 
nexion with either of the above modes of expression. 

It is however a mode unlike all the rest, and must be treated of under 
some name — it must therefore have zname by whichit may be known in 
treating of it. The name which I give it is the Unlimited mode ; naming 
it, not from what it expresses but from its freedom from the constraint 
and restraint of rules pertaining to the other modes. " What !" says the 
old theorist, " do you call it the Unlimited mode when you have declared 
against the infinitive term V Yes sir : for your term infinitive strictly 
means not limiting and so you apply it. It does not mean not limited : 
besides, even though it did mean the latter, it would as above remarked 
mean infinite. This term infinite is used in an infinite, unbounded sense 
in supposing no limit. While the term unlimited is used in a limited 
sense circumscribed by custom. 

The former is far more extensive in its meaning and application than 
the latter. All that is infinite is unlimited; but all that is unlimited, is not 
infinite. 

30* 



354 mode. 

The autocrat of Russia has not infinite power [Gfod, alone, has thatj 
But he has unlimited power according to the accepted sense of the term ; 
while England and France being limited monarchies (as they are called 
in contrast with the former) their sovereigns have limited powers of 
government ; those powers being limited by the constitutions of the 
states, and the sovereigns themselves acknowledging the constitutions 
as their guides. 

I give my attorney unlimited power ; but not infinite power : for, being 
finite myself, I can not give to another what, in myself, I do not possess, 
Besides the unlimited power of attorney, which I impart to another, 
does not include power over my own person ; or the persons or property 
of my neighbors. Here then is seen the difference between infinitive 
and unlimited. I will now proceed to the point. 

I have remarked before, that I name the mode unlimited, not from whaS 
It expresses, which would make it belong to either, to each, and to all 
the other modes ; but from its freedom from the constraint and restraint 
exercised on other modes v as, in certain tenses of other modes, th«- 
person of the subjective word on which the asserter depends, exercises 
a limiting influence on the asserter's form. Thus, I speak, [i, the 
dependence of speak, being of the first person and the asserter ending 
with k~\ Thou speakest [th>u being of the second person, and the asserter 
ending in est.] He speaks or speaker [he being of the third person 
and the asserter ending in s or eth.] While it is thus seen how the 
person of the word on which the asserter depends, controls or limits the 
asserter in form, in the other modes : in the unlimited mode is not limited 
by person, is un\imited in that respect. Thus I was requested to spea&> 
[I being of the first person, and the asserter ending with &} Thou wast 
requested to spea&, [thou being of the second person, and the asserter 
ending still with &.] He was requested to spea&, [he being of the third 
person, and the asserter, (having undergone no change) ending still with 
A.] 

Here then is one reason why the mode is called unlimited, a reason 
which can not be applied to the term infinitive, at all. 

Another reason for its being called unlimited is, that in this mode, the 
form of the word on which the asserter depends has no influence on it, 
while in some other modes, in certain tenses, it has. Thus, in the 
declarative mode, singular form, The boy speaks, [the asserter ending in 
s] Plural form, The boys spea&, [the asserter being changed in its ter- 
mination to k, by the influence which custom has attached to the form of 
the word on which the asserter in that mode depends.] Unlimited mode. 
The boy was desired to spea&. The boys were desired to speaA:. [The 
asserter having the same form, whatever is the form of the word on which 
it depends.] A second reason (not applicable to the term infinitive) why 
this mode should be called unlimited. 

Another reason for its being called the unlimited mode, is, that it is 
not limited to any ca.se, for while an asserter in any other mode is limited 
in its dependence to words in the subjective case (as it can not depend 
on a word in any other) an asserter in the unlimited mode is not limited 
to any case — may depend on a word in either the subjective or objective 
case, and may, as an assertive name, be so used in a substitute phrase 
as to depend on a word in the possessive. Henry was requested to call 



CONTRAST OF THE MODES 355 

on me— [Dependence on the subjective case.] I told him to give me his 
partner's name— [Dependence on the objective case.] William's having 
broken his arm, was the cause of his not returning with his brother. 
[Dependence as an assertive name on the possessive case.] 

This trait (depending on either of these three cases) so very import- 
ant to the asserter, and to the language, is peculiar to the ii?i-limited 
mode, inasmuch as the asserter in any other mode is limited to the sub- 
jective case of the word acting as its dependence. 

Another reason is, that while a subsequent asserter in any other mode ? 
must, to depend on the same word as a prior asserter in the same sen- 
tence, be joined by a connective to that asserter : and is of course in its 
dependence limited to the use of a connective ; an asserter in the un- 
limited mode is un-limited in this respect ; as it may, without a connec- 
tive, depend on the same word as a prior asserter in whatever mode that 
may be. Thus ; Declarative mode — John went home and assisted his 
father. Unlimited mode — John went home to assist his father. 

Thus it is seen that there are four substantial reasons for calling this 
mode Unlimited, not one of which can properly be applied to the name 
Infinitive. 

CONTRAST OF THE MODES. 

[The pupil should study this contrast till he shall be able to explain 
the difference between the modes. Let him remember that in determin- 
ing the mode of an asserter, he is only to regard that, and the name or 
substitute on which it depends ; or that alone when it has no word on 
which it depends ; that the expression " An independent remark," as 
hereafter used, means a remark which can be regarded as entire and 
complete in itself, and which does not depend for its construction on any 
other word, sentence, or clause of a sentence.] 

1. An asserter in the unlimited mode, is either dependent on a word in 
the objective case, or so used with one in the subjective, as not to con- 
stitute with that alone, an independent remark, while an asserter in any 
other mode depends, on no case except the subjective. Thus : I re- 
quested John to go home. Here, the asserter to go, depends for sense on 
the name John, in the objective case. To go must then be in the unlim- 
ited mode. John was requested to go home. Here to go is used with 
John in the subjective case (from its relation to was requested) ; yet in 
such a manner as not to make an independent remark ; for to say, " John? 
to go home " would be nonsense, [not-sense'] 

2. An asserter in the Declarative mode, always follows the subjective 
word on which it depends. It constitutes, with that word, an indepen- 
dent remark, and declares that the fact denoted by the principal, has 
been, is, or shall or will be ; as, John writes. He has written. He will 
write. 

3. An asserter in the Inferential mode, always follows the word in the 
subjective case, on which it depends ; and constitutes, with that an 
independent remark ; but it never declares that the fact denoted by the 
principal, has been, is, or ever shall or will be ; as, John can write. He 
might have written. 

4. An asserter in the interrogative mode, always precedes either 



356 CONTRAST OF THE MODES. 

wholly, or in part, [see note 2d page 80] the subjective word, on which 
it depends ; as, will John write ? Can he write ? Did he write ? Might 
he have written ? 

5. Any asserter in the commanding mode may be used when absolute 
[see page 80, note 3 p. 208] without any word representing the subject 
commanded : but whenever it has a dependence on such word it consti- 
tutes with that an independent remark, and has the same form that 
would be requisite in giving to a person a direct command ; as, John write 
me a letter. Henry go home. 

Example 1. John writes well. Here writes taken only within the 
name, John constitutes an independent remark. It cannot then be in 
the unlimited mode ; as, that never constitutes with the word on which 
it depends, an independent remark. It can not express a command. It 
can not therefore be in the commanding mode. It has its subjective 
word before the asserter. It can not therefore be in the interrogative 
mode. It must then be either in the inferential or declarative mode. 
The inferential never represents a thing as being done. It cannot be in 
this mode as it does not represent the fact as being done. There are but 
five modes, and the asserter is in neither of the four already mentioned. 
It must then be in the declarative mode. It declares, positively, that the 
fact, the writing, is being done. 

Example 2. John can write. Here can write constitutes with the 
name John, an independent remark. It can not therefore be in the un- 
limited mode. It cannot express a command. It cannot then be in the 
commanding mode. It follows the subjective word on which it depends. 
It can not then be in the interrogative mode. It must then be either in 
the declarative or inferential mode. It does not declare that the fact, the 
writing, has been done, is being done, or ever will be done. It can not 
be in the declarative mode. As there are but five modes, and as it is not in 
either of these four, it must be in the inferential mode. Besides it gives 
grounds for inferring John's ability to do what he is not represented as 
having done. 

Example 3. Has John written. Can John write. Here either as- 
serter constitutes, with its subjective word, an independent remark. It 
is, therefore, not in the unlimited mode. It does not, can not, express 
a command. It can not then be in the commanding mode. It does not 
declare the act referred to, as having been, being, or to be done. It can 
not then be in the declarative mode. It does not not give any opportunity 
for inferring any thing with respect to the act of writing. It can not then 
be in the inferential mode. It [precedes, in its auxiliary, its subjective 
word: then, as it is not in the commanding, it must be in the interrogative 
mode.* 

* The interrogative substitute used with the declarative on the inferential 
mode, constitutes an interrogation ; as, who lives there ? Who can instruct 
the Almighty ? In such cases the interrogative quality of the sentence is in 
the interrogative substitutes ; for, by the use of a name or simple substitute 
with the same asserter in the same place, the sentence would be changed to 
an affirmation ; as, John lives there. He can instruct. Interrogative adnames 
have the same effect as interrogative substitutes ; thus. What person lives 
there? Which man can instruct ? The pupil may therefore remember that 
there are four ways of expressing an interrogation, viz. by an interrogative — 
by an interrogative substitute — by an interrogative asserter or mode of the 
asserter ; and by the interrogative adname. 



CONTRAST OF THE MODES. 357 

Example 4. John ; write me a letter. Here the asserter write con- 
stitutes, with the name John, an independent remark. It can not there- 
for be in the unlimited mode. It does not declare that John has written, 
is writing, or even will write. It can not then be in the declarative 
mode. It does not precede its subjective word. It can not be in the 
interrogative mode. It must then be either in the commanding or the 
inferential. It is the form that expresses a direct command. It must 
then be in the commanding mode, and can not be in the inferential ; for, 
by the latter a command can possibly be given. 

Example 5. John, having written a letter, tried to write an advertise- 
ment. Here neither having written nor to write can constitute with the 
word John, on which it depends, an independent remark ; as, to say, 
John having written a letter [see secondary sentence page 190] leaves 
the sentence incomplete, making every one hearing the remark, aware 
that the sentence thus far, is dependent on a following part of the sen- 
tence, and to say John to write an advertisement would be to speak non- 
sense. Then as an asserter in any other mode always constitutes with 
its subjective word., an independent remark ; and as this does not, it can 
not be in any other, and must of course be in the unlimited mode, that 
never constitutes, with the name or substitute on which it depends, an 
independent remark. 

The difference between the use of the dependent and that of the in- 
dependent form of the unlimited mode, is, that the former is never used 
without an asserter of another distinction of mode, in the same simple 
sentence ; or the same member of a compound sentence : while the latter 
may be used as the only asserter in a secondary sentence [see page 190], 
Remember that the dependent form is made by the union of the 
word to with the auxiliary have, or the primary form ; or in the primary 
without to, depending on a word in the objective case ; as, John agreed 
to go home : I saw him go ; He was seen to go home : Except the as- 
serter am or he which has he instead of the primary, with, or without the 
word to as above represented concerning the primary ; as, John agreed 
to be careful of the property. I bid him he careful of his health. 

The independent form is the form of a principal asserter, (used either 
alone, or with the auxiliary having or being) which is required in the 
prior past tense ; [see rule 1 p. 125 and rule 1 p. 12S] as, having written — 
written— being written — having been written. [The independent form in- 
cludes all the old participles, and the dependent form all the forms of the 
old infinitive mode]. The form is called independent ; because it may 
be and generally is used in a secondary sentence by itself: but it may be 
used in a dependent sense and relation, when referring to, and depending 
on a word in the subjective case. The dependent form cannot depend on 
a word in the possessive case unless when in a substantive phrase it is 
preceded by the independent form ; as, the prisoners' having attempted 
to escape, aroused the keepers to vigilance. 

N. B. The modes may be used for something besides that which their 
names indicate. They are named from their chief or general business. 
Yet by the use of other words in connexion, to express what the character 
of the sentiment is, they may be applied to other purposes. Thus the 
declarative mode may be used in asking a question when there are in 
the sentence other words which have interrogative qualities in them \ 



o53 CONTRAST OF THE MODES. 

as, what man is frail. Here is the declarative mode in an interrogative 
sentence, the interrogative adname what being the word that gives the 
sentence its interrogative character. 

" Oh ! may I pant for thee in each desire." 

Here the interrogative mode is used in expressing a wish or desire. 

This is on. tho same principle that a man who is a teacher of music, 
may be engaged in garden work, at intervals, for his amusement or 
for exercise ; and still, notwithstanding this, be called a teacher of 
music. If I wish to describe him when working in his garden I should 
say a teacher of music working in his garden. 

So is it in parsing, which is describing facts as they are : and in the above 
quotation, I should parse may parity in the interrogative mode [a mode 
whose business or profession is to interrogate] used in this example to 
express desire. 

G. Brown has a most singularly absurd position with respect to the 
infinitive mode pretending that the verb in that mode is governed by the 
preposition ! and then gives a rule for their use without the preposition. 
Then, " friend G. B." how are they governed in such examples ; as, I 
heard John speak? [doubtless by something "understood" that must never 
be expressed !] In the example I saw John pass ; the word pass is in 
the unlimited or infinitive mode ; and while it depends for application on 
the asserter saw it refers to, and depends, for sense, on the name John 
denoting the actor. In the example John was seen to pass the window. 
The asserter to pass depends for its application on the asserter was seen, 
and for sense on the name John denoting the actor just as in the other 
example. This is all the government that there is in the case. The only 
difference in the asserter pass, is, that custom has decreed that to is to be a 
part of the verb in the latter example while in the former it must not be 
used. The same relation exists between the actor and the action, when 
1 say, I saw John pass the window ; as when I say John was seen to 
pass the window. 

Inasmuch then as the asserter to pass in the latter example expresses 
no idea in addition to what is expressed by pass in the former, it is seen 
clearly that pass and to pass (to and pass unitedly considered) are but 
different forms (regulated by custom) of the same asserter^and that to can 
not properly be regarded as a preposition or relative ; for if so, it must 
necessarily express an addition to what was expressed without it. This 
having been proved in English [I place not my reliance on other lan- 
guages to prove English principles] let me ask you G. B. [as you some- 
times attempt to prove in Latin for the English ! what you can not by, 
and in the English language.] In the following examples, is not the 
infinitive [unlimited] in Latin the same as in theEnglish. Thus, I desire 
to teach Latin — Ego Cupio docere. I saw Abel come — Ego videbam 
Abelem venire. The same principle is recognized by the Greek grammars 
and those of most of the modern languages. 

Quere, "would !" thou not do well to put on thy microscopie [" under- 
stood !" of course] and try to discover, among the Greek and Latin, for 
the government of the Infinitive mode, some to understood where it never 
existed ? 



DEFECTIVE VERBS — TENSE. 359 

It is not a little strange that most of the old theorists in conju- 
gating or inflecting the asserter in the imperative or commanding mode, 
conjugate it in the infinitive [unlimited] mode also. Thus, in conju- 
gating love, it runs-— 

" Singular. Plural. 

1 per. Let me love, 1 per. Let us love, 

2 per. Love thou, or do thou love, 2 per. Love ye or you, or do ye or 

you love, 

3 per. Let him love. 3 per. Let them love." 

In this example, as used by almost all of the old writers, only the 2d 
person of the substitute is used in connexion with an asserter in the im- 
perative or commanding mode ; while with both the first and the third 
person of the substitute, the verb or asserter love, which they imagine 
they are conjugating most grammatically ! in the imperative mode, they 
are, in fact, conjugating it in the infinitive ! [G. B. avoids this error.] 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

That neither may, might ; can, could ; will, would ; shall, should, 
must, nor ought, is a defective verb, every man must see who can see at 
all. They fulfil the only purposes for which they are designed, as Aux- 
iliary verbs or asserters ; and, of course, have no defect in them. 

It is remarkable that the old theorists, from time immemorial, have 
called these what they never have been, never can be. As well might 
they pretend that an ox is a defective animal, because he can not plan and 
direct in the management of a farm, as well as assist (as an auxiliary to 
man,) in the labor of it : that the sheep is defective, because flax, cotton, 
oranges, and grapes do not grow on her back, with the wool ; or because 
she has not the force, the teeth, and claws of the lion ! ! As well might 
they have said that a lady's needle is defective, because it cannot pro- 
pel a steamboat across the Atlantic ; that a screw pertaining to ma- 
chinery is defective, because it is not the whole machine ! ! Order, 
amid variety, (each filling its own place) is Heaven's first law. But 
these old theorists appear sadly to have mistaken their place, or like Jo- 
nah determined not to fill it ; choosing rather to write grammar .\\ 

The asserter let, though called an auxiliary, is always a principal. 
For the Substitute Asserter, see page 78. — Illustrated page 217. 

TENSE. 

The old authors tell us that " tense means time," or " the dis- 
tinction of time." [G. Brown talks as usual of his "modifications."] 
Tense, in the grammar of this, or any other language, can neither mean 
time, nor distinction of time, any more than a pen, an instrument of 
writing is, or means, a manuscript. 

Tense is the form of the asserter used as the means to represent facts 
or events with regard to time. To the distinctive term present, I have 
no objection, but it is most unphilosophically applied to the old infinitive 
mode : and the participles ; as, to speak, to write ; speaking, writing. 
The old grammars tell us that the present tense and the present partici- 



360 TENSE. 

pie mean the present time. Let us examine these premises. I saw 
John write. I saw John writing. Here the present tense ivrite, and 
the participle writing, relate to past time. I am seeing John write. I 
see John writing. Here they refer to present time. I shall see John 
write. I shall see John writing. Here they refer to future time. 

Now I ask, where is the quality of the " present tense," or the " pre- 
sent participle," which marks any distinction whatever 1 They are re- 
spectively applied to past, present, and future events ; the only dis- 
tinctions here being marked by the assert er "see," varied for that purpose. 
[G. B.; where is your modification of the asserter write, that distin- 
guishes present time ?] All see that what is called the present tense of 
the infinitive mode, and the present or imperfect participle mark no dis- 
tinction at all. [Quere. Why, then, do you call them the present 
tense and present participle \ Old Grammarians, answer.] 

Then, as tense is the form in which an asserter is used to represent 
an event with respect to time ; and as these forms represent events with- 
out any reference to distinction of time, as totally indefinite with respect 
to time, I give them the name of Indefinite tense — the form of the asserter 
representing events as indefinite with respect to time. 

G. Brown says, " The present tense of the infinitive mode can scarcely 
be said to express any particular time," and " The present tense is that 
which expresses what now exists, OR IS TAKING PLACE." While, 
G. B., you say that this term scarcely expresses any particular time, and 
know that it cannot mark any distinction of present time, why do you 
tolerate your own inconsistency, by calling it the present tense ! 

The present tense of the declarative mode, when in the continuative 
form, represents the occurring at the present time of the event denoted 
by the principal asserter; as, I am writing; that is, am now writing; while 
in the completive form of a transitive or intransitive asserter [am or be 
excepted] it expresses general facts or principles of existence or action 
that remain the same whether manifested with or without intermission. 
When the receptive asserter is used in the present tense of the completive 
form it denotes the present state or condition into which an object has 
been brought by a prior action the effect being present, though the cause 
or action necessarily past ; as, The house is built : while the continua- 
tive form denotes the present continuance of the act or process of re- 
ceiving. 

Asserters expressing emotion are not to be used in the continuative 
receptive form, as they, in the completive form, represent the continuance 
of the reception, by the subject of remark, of the emotions denoted by 
the asserter, as, I am loved. I am hated. 

The completive form, present tense, of the Inferential, expresses by 
inference, the idea of present liberty, possibility, or necessity, in rela- 
tion to an event that may occur, (and must, it at all) hereafter. It does 
not express present action or occurrence. This mode never expresses 
that the event has occurred, is occurring, or will occur at all. It 
only expresses the idea of liberty, necessity, &c, in relation to the fact, 
and it represents, as existent at the present time, all that the asserter 
expresses in relation to it all. Thus, I tan write, [present tense] does 
not denote that I am writing, or ever shall write : but it does denote my 
present ability to write, [and ability is all that it can ever express.] " J 



TENSES. 361 

must Write." This denotes present necessity to write some time. " I 
may act improperly." This expresses present possibility of my doing 
some time in life that which I should not. 

The present tense of the Interrogative mode follows, in respect to time, 
the sense of the mode from which it is formed. 

The present tense of the Commanding mode expresses, not as some 
have seemed to suppose, a command to do something at the present time; 
but a present command to do something, now, or hereafter, according to 
the use of other words. It does not represent that the action ever will 
be done, but it docs express a present command to do what the asserter 
denotes. 

THE 

What does imperfect mean 1 It means incomplete, unfinished, or 
wanting in some of its parts. What does tense mean ] " Time," or 
" distinction of time," or " modifications distinguishing time." — Old 
Grams. 

What then, can the imperfect tense mean 1 Why, it must mean of 
course "incomplete or unfinished time, or distinction of time," or the "in- 
complete modification; or the modification denoting incomplete distinction 
of time." Well, what does that mean ] The imperfect tense ; cer- 
tainly : do you not understand 1 Yes, I understand that one means the 
other, and the other means that ; and, being thus dependent on, and 
blended with, each other, they both mean nothing. So that, however 
imperfect the tense, in its name and application ; it is perfect in one re- 
spect — perfect nonsense — a perfect blank of sense — absence of all sense. 

Murray says, that " the imperfect tense represents an event as past and 
finished, or as remaining unfinished at a certain time past ; as, I loved 
her. They were traveling past when we met them." [Now see the 
sophism. ] Here he says, "because the word loved does not mark the pre- 
cise time or because the time is not exactly or perfectly ascertained, it is 
in the imperfect tense." If this is the ground of distinction, then all 
tenses except the present are imperfect, because that alone can mark the 
precise time of an event. What say you, M,] 

" They were traveling." In this example, he says, "the verb were" tra- 
veling, represents an action as unfinished. It may, therefore, be called 
the imperfect tense," [which would make have been writing, and every 
other variation of the continuative form, the " Imperfect tense."] 

M. should remember that tense, as defined by him and all others, has 
no reference to the continuance or completion of events, [these dis- 
tintions are marked by what I call the continuative and completive form] 
but only to distinction of time, and as both the events, the loving and 
traveling, are represented as in past time, a period of time perfected or 
completed before the present, the imperfect might be called the perfect 
tense! This tense, in the declarative mode, is used to express a past 
event as indefinitely past, should therefore be called the " indefinite 
past tense." 

the imperfect of the subjunctive, and that of the potential mode. 

This tense, according to these authors themselves, can never express 
31 



B&2 TENSE*. 

past time, although they all call it the imperfect or psst tense. TB# 
imperfect of the Potential mode, never conveys, of itself, any idea of 
past time ; though it may be used in referring to events that are repre- 
sented, by other words, to have been past. Thus, John should be stu- 
dious. Henry should visit his brother more frequently. Old Gramma- 
rians : where is any distinction of past time expressed by your imperfect 
or past tense T 

I would assist Henry if I could. If John would try to write well, h© 
might improve his style very much. Say ; Old Grammarians, where is 
the past time of this imperfect or past tense, which can never, in the sub- 
junctive or the potential [inferential] mode, express past time I Why 
then do you call it a past tense 1 Consistency ! Naming a tense 
from what it can not possibly express I Could the public have been 
gulled in such a manner by any thing but grojmmar 1 And could they 
have been m this, if they had not been taught that grammar is a chaos, 
in which are the elements of everything, but the proper shape or form of 
nothing? — An atheist's world. What says G. B, after the manner of 
Kirkham, teaching the existence and non-existence of the same thing at 
at the same time 1 

" The subjunctive imperfect, as well as the imperfect of the potential, 
is properly an indefinite tense, and it may refer to time present, past, and 
future." 

Surely, then, G. B., why do you call it the imperfect (defined to be a 
past) tense, while you know and prove it to be an indefinite tense 1 
Consistency ! thou art a gem in science, and in every thing else. 

Every one must see (as in the example above given), that whatever the 
old theorists may have called the imperfect tense of the Potential mode 7 
[the indefinite of the Inferential], it expresses whatever it does express, 
without any reference to distinction of time — as totally indefinite with 
respect to time ; and, as it is in its nature and office, so it should be in 
its name, the INDEFINITE tense ; as, We should be just and gener- 
ous ; expressing the fact of the obligation without any reference to the 
distinction of time. 

''Perfect tense." Perfect means complete or finished — wanting 
none of its parts : and tense the old grammars tell us "means time or 
distinction of time." Then what does the perfect tense mean 1 Why 
it means the perfect time or distinction of time, or at best, the perfect 
form or modification of time, or the form or modification — marking per- 
fect time or distinction of time. Well, what does all this mean 1 It 
must certainly mean the perfect tense. Possible? I know as well 
now what the "perfect tense" means, as I did before. So that as one 
means the other, and the other means that — there is a perfection in this, 
as in the imperfect tense — perfect nonsense [not-sense] want-of- sense. 

What does the perfect tense represent % 

"It represents," (even the old grammars tell us) "past events as 
though they had occurred just prior to the present" and in a period not 
disconnected with the present, or severed from it. If then it represents 
an event as though it had occurred in a time immediately prior to the 
present time, and connected with the present, why not call it the " prior- 
present tense," that is the form in which an asserter is used to represent 
an event as having occurred prior to the present time, and in a period ex- 



TENSES. 363 

tending to, and connected with, the present. Then would the name and 
representation correspond ; for, although the event may have have oc- 
curred a long time ago> yet as it is represented as having occurred in a 
period of time extending to the present, it may with propriety be called 
the prior-present tense ; as the time in which the event did occur extends 
and attaches itself to the present time, although the event is, in its occur- 
rence, represented as prior- to the present timer 

This name has been objected to on the ground that all past events have 
occurred prior to the present time ; and that, consequently, when I say 
w John died ;" as, died expresses a past event, and one necessarily prior 
«o the present time, died is in the prior-present tense. 

I will obviate this apparent difficulty. When I say, " John died," I 
have no reference to the present time ; the time is understood as being 
completely past and unconnected with the present, as much as" though 
I had said, John died last year. But when I say, John has died, William 
has returned, I represent events as though they had occurred in a period 
of time, not fully past, but identified with the present, while yet the events 
themselves, though past, are represented as having occurred in the period 
which, though begun prior to the present, has its final limit in the present 
time ; and as a part of it. 

The compound word prior-present represents one limit of the period 
as being in the present time ; and the other as prior (not subsequent) to 
it : as holding fast to the present time, and at the same time extending 
its reference prior to that time ; for I can not properly use this tense 
when by any part of the sentence 1 sever the time of the evenf s occur- 
rence from the present time ; as, John has died, last January ! for the 
expression last January, describing the limits of the period and severing 
it necessarily from the present, precludes the use of prior-present tense. 
£ may say, " several of my friends have died this year ;" [although they 
#nay have died in January] for the expression this year indicates that a . 
part of the period in which they died is not yet past, but constitutes the 
present moment in which I am speaking. 

** Pluperfect tense." To an English scholar, what can this mean ! 
Nothing. What does it mean ? " Oh," says Latinus, " the term comes 
from plus — more ; quam — than ; and perfectus — perfect." Possible 1 
Then what does plus — quam — perfectus mean 1 " It means more — than 
— 'perfect." Surely ! I have heard of Perfectionists [I speak to illustrate ; 
not to contemn] who believe in the possibility of attaining in this life 
perfection in rectitude of purpose and a-ction ; but here is another morn 
rising in the meridian splendor of perfection ! More than perfect! Con- 
science ! ! It takes (and requires) an old grammarian to mount one 
step higher than the superlative of altitude, or in fondly imagining that he 
is to mount above the sublime, to lose his balance, and plunge into the 
ridiculous. The old theorists have searched sea and land to make this 
proselyte, and when they have made him [it] he is tenfold more the child 

of absurdity than themselves. 

The term is notwithstanding quite appropriately chosen, for while the 
terms perfect and imperfect are, as applied, (as L have already shown) 
perfect nonsense ; this is very expressive of the true principles on 
which it was chosen (not for which it was designed) being more than 
£*£efsct nonsense — non sensus plus quam perfectus, or rather, PLUS 



364 TENSES. 

quam perfectus non-sensus !!! that is, as the next state beyond perfect 
nonsense ; a very ridiculous absurdity — per-ridicula absurditas 
[res absurda — perridicuia.J 

"What does this tense represent 1 It represents a past event as having 
occurred prior to another past event or a past time. Why not call it, 
then, what alone it may be called, the prior-past tense'? that is, (as tense 
is form,) the form of the asserter which represents a past event prior to 
another past event or a past time : as, Morgan had crossed the river 
when Cornwallis appeared on the opposite shore : the appearing of Corn- 
wallis being one past event ; and the crossing the river, by Morgan, the 
past event which, in the time of its occurrence is, by the form or tense 
had crossed, represented as having been prior to that past event. The 
path of philosophy is always straight, and can be made plain. 

Murray says concerning these three tenses — " The terms which we ! 
have used to represent the three past tenses may not be exactly ! signi- 
ficant of their nature and distinctions, [Possible 1] f^f but, as they are 
used by grammarians in general, and have an established authority," 
[however absurd and ridiculous] and especially as the meaning attached 
to [instead of inherent in,'} each of them, and their different significa- 
tionsj have been carefully explained, we ! presume that no solid objec- 
tion can be made to the use of terms so generally approved, and so 
explicitly defined." 

Instead of being almost " exactly significant of their nature and dis- 
tinctions," these terms have, in grammar, no meaning at all, and what 
they have anywhere else, is at variance with what they are, by their 
application, forced to represent. Then their " being used by grammar- 
ians in general, and consequently having an established authority," is 
season sufficient for their introduction ; while they are acknowledged to 
be defective (for if they were right they could be used without the au- 
thority of precedent, and certainly no precedent can ever make righteous, 
the use of what is wrong in itself), " and especially as these are ex- 
plicitly defined ;" that is, though by force you may make them do some- 
thing which is foreign to their nature ; it is just as well as though the 
whole was natural — -spontaneous ; especially if some man who has writ- 
ten a book has done so before ! ! 

My view of matters in science and every thing else, is, that a little evil 
is quite too much : and much good, quite too little, while there is more 
that can properly be obtained. 

G. Brown says page 82. " But the application of a name is of little 
consequence,* so that the thing itself be rightly understood by the 

* By the word consequence he doubtless means importance : but he wrote this 
word more grammatically than he intended. " Consequence" means that 
which is produced by a cause ; and G. B. is right with respect to his "-par- 
ticiples," in saying that the application of his " names of them is of little con- 
sequence [just none at all, as they are named independently of cause.~] G. B., 
though thou art sometimes wrong by design, tlfou art here right by accident. 
He says on the same page, " upon the choice of his terms the writer has 
bestowed much reflection, yet he finds it impossible to please everybody, 
[Do you satisfy yourself? G. B.] or explain all the reasons for preference. 
When I shall offer anything which I cannot explain (at least my reasons for 
preference) and defend, may the public put me where I belong, in the scale of 



TENSES. 365 

Searner." [A very un grammatical sentence.] " Grammar should be 
taught in a style at once neat, plain, clear, and brief." Certainly, G. B, 
but your eyes must have been turned " right and left," at the same time, 
during the semi-lucid moment of your dictating this, as the principle of 
the first sentence is directly at variance with that of the last ; for, cer- 
tainly, no man can teach any thing in a manner at once plain, clear, and 
brief, without having names corresponding with the influence of the 
principle to be described ; for where the name is senseless, in its applica- 
tion, much length of definition is required : which prevents the " man- 
ner's being brief :" and should the least part of the definition be lost, the 
whole principle would be : and if the name is senseless, and used with- 
out much definition ; although the style may be neat and brief (like a 
small polished stone, unmarked, for a book), yet it can be neither plain 
nor clear. 

Where the name is indicatory of the office or influence described, then 
the name and definition are mutual aids. The name being given on philo- 
sophical principles, when the pupil sees what the influence of the word is, 
he knows what to call it ; and when he sees the name, he knows the 
character of the object; though he may have forgotten every part of the 
definition ; as, can John write. Ask the pupil " in what mode is the as- 
serter 1" and he will tell you at once in the interrogative ; and if you 
should ask him why, he would be able to tell without turning to the de- 
finition in the book, just on the same principle that would induce him 
to call a man a reaper whom he should see reaping. I know that reap- 
ing might originally just as well have been called speaking, and speak- 
ing reaping ; as what it is. But had that been the case, it would have 
been just as unphilosophical to call him a speaker, who did what is now 
called reaping, and him a speaker, who did what is called reaping, as it is 
now philosophical to call him who reaps a reaper, and him who speaks a 
speaker. If shoeing meant gathering, and horses were called peaches, we 
could with propriety call a man a peach-gatherer, whose business is 
shoeing animals, now called horses: yet as these objects and actions bear 
the name that they do, it is of some importance that we give the name 
of horse-shoer to him who shoes horses, and peach- gatherer to him who 
gathers peaches. 

On this principle I call that form or tense of the asserter the present 
tense, which represents an event as though occurring at the present time; 
as, I am writing — that tense the prior-present, which represents the 
event as though it occurred just prior to the present time ; as, I have 
icritten nearly enough on this subject — that the indefinite-past tense, 
which represents a past event as indefinitely past ; as, John died and 
Henry recovered ; representing the event as past, but in every other re- 
spect totally indefinite — that the prior-past tense, which represents an 
event as having been prior, in its occurrence, to another past event or 
past time — and that the indefinite tense which, represents an event in- 
definitely with respect to time : being in these and the like matters, of the 



authors. A man should never name a thing till he knows what it is. When he 
has learned its nature and office, he is prepared to give it a name, and to de- 
fend that name against any attack of philosopher or bigot, 

31* 



366 TENSES. 

opinion of St. Paul* — " If I know not the meaning of the words used, I 
shall be to him that speaketh a barbarian ; and he will be a barbarian to 
me." [Example — pluperfect, a barbarian term, neither Latin nor Eng- 
lish, but what in country phrase is called " goat latin."} 

" For you verily give thanks," [prate, old trash] " well, but the other," 
[the pupil] " is not edified. Yet in the church," [school] " I would 
rather speak FIVE words in the language of the hearer, than ten thou- 
sand words in an unknown tongue." 

The two future tenses. The grand absurdity of the old theorists in 
relation to these, is, that they name them on a principle of direct 
contrariety ! ! Thus, hear — 

K. " The first future tense represents future time." [So does any fu- 
ture tense : all that is implied by the name future.] 

G. B» " The first future tense represents what is to take place here- 
after." Possible 1 ! ! 

S. "The first future tense expresses what will take place." Surely ! 

M. says — " The first future tense represents an action as yet to come, 
either with or without respect to the precise time ; as, The sun will rise 
to-morrow. I shall see them again." This tense never shows " the 
precise time when," though other words may do that, while this tense 
expresses only future time indefinitely considered. 

M. says — " The second future tense intimates that the action will have 
been fully accomplished at or before the time of another future action or 
event, as, I shall have dined at one o'clock. The two houses will have 
finished their business when the king comes to prorogue them." [Comes 
is in the present tense : why is it unnecessarily used in the future 
sense? It should be shall come.} The definition of Murray is echoed 
from rank to rank of the whole grammar corps : but mark this ! 

If I should ask which of the two future events, that are to occur in 
succession, should be called the first future ; would not the answer be, 
" that which shall first occur V 1 If I should ask which of the two future 
events that are to occur in succession should be called the second future, 
would not the answer be, " That which shall be second in order of time 1" 
Yet our sages ! teach the very reverse of this : naming that tense the 
second future which represents the occurrence of the first of the two 
successive events, and that the first future tense, which represents the 
second of the two successive future events, or a future event otherwise 
indefinitely considered ; Thus, I shall have traveled three days before 
my departure will be known. Here, will be known, which expresses the 
second of these two future events [but represents it as indefinitely fu- 
ture] is denominated the first future tense ; and shall have traveled, 
which represents the first of these two events, is denominated the second 
future tense. Oh! star-eyed science!! whither hast thou fled 1 
81 Will be known," represents a future event, but represents that event 
as indefinitely future. I therefore call that form of the asserter, what I 

* Let no one censure me for introducing '* scripture " into my grammar for 
illustration. Iwish it was everywhere, in life, introduced and practised; as 
we should then have less inconsistency in science, in thought and action, than 
now : for " it is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction and in- 
struction, that a man be thoroughly furnished for every good work." 



TENSES. 367 

can not rationally avoid calling it, the indefinite-future tense. " Shall 
have traveled,'* expresses the occurrence of one future event, prior to 
another future event or future time. Then, as this form of the asserter 
represents an event as both future and prior to some other event or time, 
I call it, what I must call it, the prior-future tense. I am placed with 
respect to these matters, as in everything else in grammar, in a condition 
in which I must, with disgrace, play the fool in misnaming the princi- 
ples that I would exhibit ; or, without credit, name them what they 
are. The only honor due to a person in such circumstances, is, for 
having studied to know what is right — and, after having learned that, 
for having dared, though alone, to act the proper part. 

"With respect to those forms of the asserter named by the old theorists 
Present, or Imperfect, Perfect, and Compound Perfect Participles, as 
though they [the asserters] denoted imperfection, perfection, and com- 
pound perfection ! I will only remark briefly that the one called present 
gives no distinction of time, but expresses the continuance of the action 
denoted by it ; as, I saw John writing. I see John writing. I shall see 
John writing : [being the indefinite tense -and the continuative form of 
the unlimited mode independent,] that the one called perfect or past 
participle expresses, without reference to the distinction of time, the 
completion of the fact denoted by it ; as, I saw John injured. I shall 
see John injured ; [being the indefinite tense and the completive form of 
the unlimited mode independent] ; and that the compound perfect par- 
ticiple is really an asserter in the unlimited mode, completive form, and 
prior-past tense ; thus, The vessel having been stranded, it was left by 
the crew : — which, with respect to fact and time, is equal to — When the 
vessel had been stranded, it was left by the crew. If " having been 
stranded " is a compound perfect participle, then is " had been strand- 
ed.'' If " had been stranded,'' is a verb or asserter in the pluperfect 
tense [prior-past tense] so is " having been stranded," for both express 
the same fact in the same relation with respect to time. 

It is remarkable, that the old theorists in laboring with the professed 
object of guiding people in the use of correct language, should endeavor 
to inculcate the principle of using the continuative form of the transitive, 
for that of the receptive asserter ; as, "The house is building. The dress 
is making. The grain is harvesting. The book is printing :" which 
inculcation is striking, by precedent, at the very root of all correctness ; 
as it is directing the choice and arrangement of words with a total disre- 
gard to their nature, office, and distinctions. None are more forward in 
this matter than G. Brown, and a Mr. Bullions, of Albany. The prin- 
ciples of fact, subversive of their theories in this respect, are few and 
plain.* 

* I am glad to see that in this matter, Mr. Wright is not ivrong, as he, with- 
out having known that I existed, theorized on the other side of the Atlantic 
in a manner somewhat similar to mine, as explained in a work that was the 
precursor of this book ; I, at the same time, not knowing that he or his work 
was in existence. The only thing remarkable in this affair, however, is, not 
that he and I should have thought nearly alike in relation to the principle, but 
that all, on both sides of the ocean, should not long since have viewed it in 
the same light. This, in Wright's grammar, is, however, like the few righte- 
ous men in Sodom — not sufficient, amid so much error, to save his work. 



368 ARTICLES. 

Example. — The house is building. To build, means to construct 
something. Is building, as here used, refers to, and depends on, the 
name house, denoting the subject of remark. This attaches the idea of 
constructing the edifice, to the house, as the constructor or builder. Yet 
all know that the house itself is not building, cannot build anything ; but 
that the workmen are building the house; and if the workmen are building 
the house, the house, itself, is not building, but being built : that is, the 
component parts of the edifice, (whose combination is anticipated by the 
use of the name house,) are now undergoing the process of arrangement 
and union. The house is being built. Built, asserts the reception by 
the house, of the act of building, performed by the workmen. Being, 
(the continuative form of am or be), prefixed to built, makes the combi- 
nation of words denote the continued reception of the act of building. Is 
denotes present time : and, prefixed to being built, and referring to, and 
depending on, the name house, makes the whole sentence denote the pre- 
sent — continuance — of the reception — by the house — of the act of build- 
ing — performed by the workmen ; which fact represents the asserter, 
as it is said to be, the continuative form of the receptive asserter in the 
present tense. 

To say, " The house is built," would denote that the house has been 
finished, and is, now, complete. While to say, " The house is being 
built," would be to represent the house, as in a state, now incomplete, 
but tending toward completion. The sentiment above expressed might, 
be expressed by saying, the workmen are building the house ; yet if you 
do not wish to particularize the workmen, to say " the house is being 
built," is far preferable to saying the workmen are building the house. 

For further examples, see page 249. See also page 360, in relation 
to the present tense of the receptive asserter. 

LECTURE IV. 
ADNAMES, OR ADJECTIVES, AND ARTICLES. 

Article. — This term, like almost all the distinctive terms of the old 
theories, is useless. According to the accepted meaning of the term, 
anything bought, had, or sold, real or imaginary, is an article. 

" Oh !" says the old theorist, "that is not the sense of it in Latin, 
where the word originated." I care little for its origin. I know its 
meaning as an English word, and according to that, we are bound to 
use it in English. Besides, the Latin signification has not the least si- 
milarity to the meaning which you would force it to represent. In Latin 
it means only a hinge, a joint, or knot; a point, moment, or instant of 
time ; a clause, or small member of a sentence." So that even in the 
Latin, it may be applied to almost any thing, and to any other part of 
speech, as well as to that to which you apply it. What is an article 1 
"A word prefixed to a name, to limit its meaning, or the extent of 
its signification." This is the sense of all the old definitions of the 
article. 

" If, then, an article is a word prefixed to a noun, to limit its mean- 
ing, all words prefixed, or which may be prefixed, to names to limit their 
meaning, or the extent of their signification, are articles. This includes 



ARTICLES. 369 

all the numerals and all the other specifying adnames, except the distri- 
butive and indefinite. I saw ten men — two men — three apples — six ap- 
ples. Which words are prefixed to the words men and apples, to limit 
their meaning or signification 1 The words ten, two, three, and six. 
These, then, are articles, and all the other numerals, from one to mil- 
lions of millions of millions ; as their only use is to limit the meaning or 
signification of names. •* 

John sold his black horses and white house. Here black and white 
are both articles, according to the definition of the. article : for they limit 
the meaning of the names horses and house, limiting the assertion of 
the sales to the horses and the house thus described ; making the asser- 
tion pertain only to objects of certain colors. 

John gave me a sweet apple. Here sweet is an article, for its only use 
is to show the quality of the thing, arid by limiting the meaning of the 
name, to fix the character of the object denoted by the name whose 
meaning it limits. 

How many articles do the old theorists give us? Two, they say — the 
and a or an ; making these two one word, while they are two distinct 
words, differently used, as much as this and these. Are these the only 
words in our language prefixed to names, to limit their meaning 1 ' ' No. " 
Why then do you pretend to teach what you know is not fact ? " Why, 
Murray — said — so." Well, Murray, why did you say so] " Sam. 
Johnson — said — that was the way." Samuel Johnson says (See Mur- 
ray's quotation of it, for his own defence, in his octavo grammar), " [n 
preparing my work for the press, I have followed the plan of precedent 
writers, without inquiring whether or not a better plan might be found." 
Surely ! how philosophical such a course, and what grammars these 
works must be ! ! 

Another shining trait in these theories concerning the article is this — 
" A substantive or noun [name], without an article to limit it, is gene- 
rally taken in its widest seuse ; as, A candid temper is proper for man ; 
that is, for all mankind." According to this, when I hear the remark-'- 
11 James ate fish for breakfast," I must think he ate all the fish in 
the sea, and out of it.!! This remark may refer correctly to the ex- 
ample which they have given, but not, in the same sense, to any thing 
besides. \\ We say, the horse, the lion, the elk, the whale, the shark, when 
meaning the whole genus, or only a species. The difference between a 
specifying and a qualifying adname is, that the former is used to specify 
with respect to an object independently of its quality ; while the latter 
is used to show quality, without other specification ; and the fact, that 
qualifying adnames do specify in other respects, is only incidental, [not 
designed,] owing to its constructive relation to the sentence, an inci- 
dental specification, necessarily attendant on all words in a sentence. 

Some of the old grammarians admit, and others prove, that while they 
call a, an, and the, articles, they are, in fact, specifying adjectives, or ad- 
names, being so similar in their nature and office to the words called 
adjective pronouns, or specifying adjectives, as to show clearly that they 
belong to that class of words. Thus, I met a man yesterday at the 
stage-house ; William is the man, or that man. Solomon Barrett, jun. 
defines the indefinite article thus : " The indefinite article is so called, 
because it is precisely equivalent to an indefinite adjective pronoun.!!" 



3T0 ADNAMES, OR ADJECTIVES. 

Yet this man of wisdom ! ! for the reason that " it is exactly like another 
part of speech," still calls it an article ! ! "The definite article," he says, 
"is equal to a demonstrative adjective pronoun !" [a definite specifying 
adname.] That they do, in fact, belong to the same class of words no 
man can rationally doubt. 

Neither a nor an, however, is exactly equivalent to any or one, being 
less striking in their representation of indefiniteness than the former ; 
and never, like the latter, referring to one object as distinguished from 
two or more, or being used in contrast with the word another ; as, one 
man started for Utica at one o'clock, and another at three. One pupil 
excels in geography, and another in arithmetic. 

Murray says, "A general name may be made to represent a particular 
object by the use of an article or pronoun ! before it ; as, the boy is studious ; 
that girl is discreet ;" showing thereby that they are in fact of the same 
class of words. This remark is made by M. when he had only denned 
a pronoun as " a word used instead of a noun." 

They as contrasted with this, that, these, and those, is to be used in re- 
ference to characters and principles not before mentioned, but which are 
well known or afterward described in the sentence, by the joint influence 
of the and other words ; and the other terms, this, that, &c, in identi- 
fying objects seen, or before described ; as, I have met that man before. 
Webster is the Demosthenes of America. The formation of the eye shows 
the skill of its Maker, and rebukes the blasphemy of the atheist. All see 
that it would not be proper in the last sentence to use that in the place 
of the, and say, That formation of that eye shows that skill, &c. 

SECONDARY ADNAMES. 

[Adverbs qualifying adjectives.] I say, John is happier than Henry. 
John is more happy than Henry. All agree in calling happier an adjec- 
tive or adname, but all the old theorists call more as here used ad-verb, 
though added to an adjective ! An adjective is a word added to a name 
to show its quality. Happier shows the condition or quality of John, and 
so does the combination more happy ; and both happier and more happy 
are alike added to the name John, for no purpose but to show the quality 
or condition of the man. 

" Oh no!" say the old theorists, " more is attached to happy, and 
happy is attached to the name John. Then the attachment of more 
(through happy as an intermediate term) is quite as complete, while 
happy remains attached to John, as though there was no intermediate 
term between more and John. The last link of a watch-chain is an ad- 
watch, as much as the first ; (though attached to the watch through the 
medium of the first and the intervening ones :) otherwise, when I remove 
the last link of the chain it would not stir the watch, to which, through 
the medium of the others, it is fully attached. The idea of these words' 
being called ad-verbs because added to adjectives ! is seen, at the first 
glance, to be preposterous. See plate III, with the remarks opposite ; 
and also the parsing explained. The modifying adname refers to a 
change in the condition, and the result of a certain action [Lecture V.] 
as well as to the quality ; as, Ardent spirits burn blue. The eggs were 
boiled hard. 



MODIFIERS OR ADVERBS. 371 



LECTURE V. 



MODIFIERS — -ADVERBS. 



If the term verb has been, on page 339, exploded, then the term ad-verb 
must die with it ; as it is built on the term verb ; being formed from add } 
to join or attach, and verb. But admitting that the term verb is a proper, or 
fit name, let us examine the ad-verb. " An adverb is a part of speech 
joined to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or another adverb, to express 
some quality or circumstance respecting it !" What Byron has said of 
R. Southey, is here true of Murray : 

He has written much blank verse, but blanker prose ; 
And more of either than any body knows, [understands.] 

This definition is totally senseless with respect to the influence of the 
adverb : as the same remarks may be made of every word, in every sen- 
tence. We learn something with respect to its place — its being joined 
or added — and must judge from this, that it is sometimes an adverb, 
sometimes an ad-participle, sometimes an ad-adjective, and sometimes an 
ad-adverb ; and according to Kirkham, an ad-preposition, [ad-any-thing, 
in fact, ad- all- things.] 

The old theorists, in treating of the adverb, represent it as never in- 
fluencing more than one word in any sentence. See their rule concern- 
ing adverbs. " An adverb qualifies" (B. says relates to) " a verb, a par- 
ticiple, an adjective, or another adverb," (K. adds in a note, or a prepo- 
sition.) Here, by the use of the connective or, it is rendered impossible 
that they should mean, that it ever qualifies more than one part of speech 
at the same time. They say, " qualifies one or another." 

What is the fact 1 It is, that an adverb in a simple sentence, qualifies 
or modifies every word in that sentence, without exception. , " I could 
not see John when I called at his father's house day-before-yesterday at 
two o'clock in the afternoon." " Not, is an adverb and qualifies the verb 
could see, — Rule . Adverbs qualify verbs, &c." Old Grams. 

Do you not see that by making not an adverb, qualifying could see, 
confining, by your rule, its influence to that word, you would represent 
me as confessing that I was stark blind ! representing that I could not 
see 1 ! I did not say that I could not see, but that /[not another] could 
not see [not hear of] John [not another man] v*hen i" [not another] 
called at [not sent to] his [not another's] father s [not uncle's] house [not 
store] day-before-yesterday [not yesterday] at [not near] two o'clock 
[not three] in the afternoon [not in the morning.] 

The sentence without not would be wholly affirmative, but with it, it 
is wholly negative : for the word not refers alike to the actors and the ac- 
tion ; the object, time, and place. It modifies all the words with which it 
stands connected. It modifies the sentence in which it occurs. It modifies 
the language. It is a Modifier ; but not classed as such in all places 
where others call it an adverb, for an adverb (one so called) may be a 
modifier, a secondary adname, [see page 139] a secondary relative, [page 
158] an interrogative or a replier, [ see pages 180 and 182.] 



372 RELATIVES OR PREPOSITIONS. 



LECTURE VI. 

Relatives, Connectives, Interrogatives, Repliers, and Ex- 
clamations, that is Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections, &c. 

This term [pre — before, and positio — a placej has no sense in connex- 
ion with the affairs of this class of words. 

Every word of every sentence, except the last of each, is a preposition, 
or before position or place ; as, " John never understood Grammar at 
all, though he had studied it twenty years." Here, every word before 
years is a pre-position, and years is a sub, post, subjunctive, or after 
position. 

What is the office of the preposition 1 

" It connects words and shows the relation between them." — Old 
Grams. That is, it shows the relation between words. Then when I say, 
John walked through! the brook, I must mean that the name John, is 
through the name brook : that is, one name is written or spoken through 
the other. " Oh," they say, '« we do not mean so ; we mean it shows the 
relation between the things or objects." Then speak as you mean, for if 
you do not mean as you say, how am I to know what you do mean 1 
" Shows the relation between objects or things." Then when I say, John 
walked through the brook ; I must mean that he was through the brook. 
This would represent, that his head was on one bank, and his feet on the 
other ; with his body in the water, that flowing over and under him. In 
no other way could it be fact that he was through the brook. " When 
he had walked across the brook was he not through it?" No : he was 
beyond the brook ; on the other side of it. 

Through shows the relation that existed between the event of John's 
walking, and the brook, as the object through which he walked. The 
preposition never shows the relation between words, when these words 
are used *to express ideas ; but, connecting [in some respect] the words, 
it shows, by that connexion, the relation between the ideas expressed 
by those words — between an event or fact on one hand, and an object on 
the other : or between two objects ; as, the pen in my hand, does not 
write on this paper very elegantly. 

Because these words, called prepositions, are used to show the relation 
of facts or events to objects, or of one object to another, I call them Rela- 
tives : wishing always to have the name of a class of words correspond 
with its office. [See the critical remarks concerning relatives, page .] 

I have included among the relatives, worth, like, but, unlike, and others, 
concerning which the old theorists were always in a quandary. It is 
both amusing and lamentable to see their dodgings in relation to these 
words. Thus ; G. Brown, paofe 188, after a long investigation, says : 
" We see no good reason why vjorih is not a preposition, governing the 
noun or participle." Then certainly, G. B., you have the best reason in 
the world for saying it is one. Yet you do not rank it as one in your 
list. 

Kirkham and others would parse like, and unlike, adjectives, worth as a 
name, and but a conjunction ; utterly spoiling, by this transformation, 
the beauty and propriety of the sentence ; thus, "John is like his bro- 
ther, but unlike his cousin," must stand, " John is like unto his brother, 



CONNECTIVES OR CONJUNCTIONS. 373 

but unlike to or unto his cousin !" " John's knife is worth a dollar ;" full 
and perfect, must stand, John's knife is of the ivorth of a dollar ! " All of 
the company but John went to Trenton Falls, thence to Niagara, thence 
to Plattsburg ; and returned by the way of Bennington." According to 
the old grammars, this sentence, to be grammatical, must stand, All of the 
company went to Trenton Falls, thence to Niagara, thence to Plattsburg, 
and returned by the way of Bennington ; but John (one of the same 
company) did not go to Trenton Fails, thence to Niagara, thence to 
Plattsburg ; and return by way of Bennington ! ! ! 

The old theorists do not see that the traveling company can not be de- 
scribed as it was when traveling, without excepting, at the start, the 
man John, who did not go. Besides they assert direct contrarieties ; by 
declaring, first, that all the company went, and when they are described 
as having returned, we learn that John, one of the same traveling com- 
pany did not go at all ! ! ! 

CONNECTIVES— CONJUNCTIONS. 

The term Conjunction denotes, strictly, not the conjoining power, but 
the result or effect of its exercise. It connects, however, and I there- 
fore call it a CONNECTIVE : this being the best word in the lan- 
guage to express the idea. 

" Conjunctions are chiefly divided into two sorts, Copulative and Dis- 
junctive.'' — Old Grams. 

Copulative means coupling or connectino-, and conjunction means con- 
nexion. Then Copulative Conjunction must mean a coupling connex- 
ion ; or, as they would have conjunction mean connecter, instead of 
what it does mean, it would then stand a coupling connecter. 

Who does not know that coupling means connecting in couples, and 
of course that either the word copulative or conjunction is tautological, 
and should be excluded 1 

f^T Disjunctive means disjoining, and the old theorists tell us that 
conjunction means conjoining, or connexion ; which makes this conjunc- 
tion a putting of things together by taking them apart ! I Grammatical 
beauty ! ! 43 

The term copulative conjunction is applied, as a good old immigrant, on 
viewing the Erie Canal, remarked of De-Witt Clinton, " He must be a 
very good governing government, to do all this :" while the inconsistency 
of the term Disjunctive conjunction, is well illustrated by the language 
of a justice of the peace, (in one of the interior counties of N. Y ) who, 
having joined the hands of a couple whom he was marrying, pronounced 
his mal-e-diction, [grammatically considered], by saying, " what man 

HATH PUT TOGETHER, LET NOT GOD ALMIGHTY JOIN ASUNDER ! ! A dis- 
junctive conjunction, complete. Besides all this, the definition of each 
class of conjunctions includes the other, as much as it does its own. 
Thus, " A Copulative conjunction serves to connect and continue a sen- 
tence, by expressing, (or joining on a member that expresses) an addition 
supposition, &c." 

" A con-] unction ^'5-junctive serves, not only to connect and continue a 
sentence, but also expresses opposition of meaning, in different degrees." 
[These are Murray's definitions : and the other writers' language means 
the same.] 32 



374 XNTERR0GAT1VES OR REFLIERS, 

Examples. — James attends school, and John remains at home, to work 
on the farm. Here 7 and joins on a member that expresses addition of 
meaning ; it is therefore a copulative conjunction. It also joins on a 
member that expresses opposition of meaning, ("James attends school," 
expresses one sentiment and fact, and " John remains at Jioni&>" ex- 
presses a different and opposite fact ;) it is therefore a disjunctive con- 
junction. " John will go to school, but he will return immediately." 
Here but is fully a " Copulative con-junction," according to the definition 
of that, and fully a " disjunctive co^-junction," according to the defini- 
tion of that. It is fully both, or fully neither. 

" I will carry Jane to school, if John will not carry her.*' I will carry 
Jane to school, expresses one fact. — John will not carry her, expresses 
another, of an opposite character ; which makes if, (ranked as a copula- 
tive conjunction,) a disjunctive conjunction. That member just joined 
by if to the previous one, expresses condition, or supposition, as the cause 
of my offering to carry her. If, therefore, is a copulative conjunction. 
It is fully of both classes, fully of each, or, not at all of either. Another 
gem in the grammatic crown of unfading — blackness, 

INTERROGATIVES REPLIERS. 

With respect to these parts of speech, called by the old theorists, Ad- 
verbs, I need say but little. 

Example I. — James ; you should be just towards all men, and gene- 
rous in proportion to your means. "Why V This word [why] the old 
grammarians term an adverb ; yet all see that it is not an adverb ; not 
being added to any verb, but standing alone. To have the foregoing 
sentence repeated after the word why ; thus, "James ; you should be just 
towards all men, and generous in proportion to your means. Why 
should I be just towards all men, and generous in proportion to my 
means V would be most grossly tautological and ungrammatical. [See 
pages 180 and 181.] It stands alone, and is sufficient, of itself, thus 
used, to express interrogation ; it is, therefore, an interrogative. 

Example II. — John ; will you go with me to Hartford ; stay there a 
few days ; go thence to Plattsburg ; and return by way of Albany ] " No, 
Sir." No, as here used, constitutes a full reply to the foregoing inter- 
rogation. It is, therefore, a replier. It is nothing else. 

To pretend that it is an adverb, is pretending that which can never 
be fact : for, though the whole sentence should be repeated, no would 
still stand separate from it ; thus, John ; will you visit Henry this after- 
noon, and spend the evening with him % No : I will not visit Henry 
this afternoon, and spend the evening with him. No, is still quite as 
separate from the sentence, as it was before ; and all that follows no, is 
tautological ; as that word expresses alone all that can be expressed by 
that and the sentence with it. 

The old theorists, calling the Interrogatives and Repliers, adverbs, is 
only a part of their regular system of naming words, either at variance 
with, or independently of, their office, or influence. Perhaps, however, 
these writers are excusable from ignorance ; for, not hearing the voice 
of Lowth or Sam. Johnson, calling them forward, they feared to adven- 
ture an opinion of their own, and sagely determined to call them all ad- 



EXCLAMATIONS OR INTERJECTIONS. 375 

verbs, — that is, anything — that is, we do not know what they are — that 
is, " unexplored regions ! !" [See pages 182 ami 183.] 

EXCLAMATIONS— INTERJECTIONS. 

What, to an English student, is meant by the term interjection ? 
Nothing. What, to the Latinist, does it mean 1 It means something 
very different from the place, office, or influence of the class of words 
that it is forced to represent. The Latinist may talk of his inter, and 
jacio, and his interjicio, which means to throw between, and his inter- 
jection, which he says means a throwing between ; but all this, to an 
English student, is barbarous. Besides ; all words in a sentence except 
the first and last are interjections, according to the meaning of that term ; 
as all but the two words standing at the extremities, are thrown or put 
between them, and are, therefore, interjections; while the words called in- 
terjection should never be so used-should always stand alone ; as, " Oh ! 
virtue, how amiable thou art." 4t Oh? Absalom, my son." G. Brown, 
drags one into the middle of a sentence, where it never belonged ; thus, 
*' This enterprise, alas ! will never compensate us for the trouble 
and expense with which it has been attended." If G. B. meant the en- 
prize of studying grammar, in the old theories, his sentiment is very ap- 
propriate ; but his alas J he should have known enough to put into the 
right place:-before the sentence representing the fact that excites the emo- 
tion expressed by alas! £See on the Chart part 3, of Rule XVII.] 

These words are used in exclaiming, and are what all know them to 
be, exclamations ; as I call them. May I not call them what they are 1 

The old theorists' rules of Syntax, are but the climax of their absur- 
dity. The building is as shapeless a mass, as the incongruous materials 
themselves. It is disgusting to examine their government and 
agreement — their transformations and destructions, (called transposi- 
tions] of sentences — their supplying ellipses where none ever existed ; 
their parsing words, of sentences already full and perfect, as though de- 
pending on words understood, which they dare not express ; thereby 
pretending that the temple of science, perfect, firm, and enduring as phi- 
losophy itself; is depending for its support on some secret props [un- 
derstood], that, if used, would destroy the beauty, strength, and elegance 
of the edifice, so that no man of refined taste would ever own it; as, in 
the " transpositions " adverted to in my progress through this book. 

After giving a few more of these sublime " transpositions," I will 
conclude this wordy war, and leave the public to examine the contro- 
versy, and erect, as shall seem appropriate, my Trophy, or my Cenotaph, 

The first sentence of each couplet stands as it should be written and 
parsed, according to this book : and the second, as the old works would 
have it stand to be grammatically complete. It will be seen that the old 
theorists do not parse, at all, the elegant sentences given ; but form new 
and most ontlandhhly bungling ones, in their places ; and then call the 
first examples grammatical, because the second are parseable ! Thus : 

1. The wall is ten feet high. — The wall is high to ten feet. G. B. and 
others. The wall is of the height often feet. K. and others. 2. Henry 
and James respect each other. — -Henry and James respect ; each man 



376 TRANSPOSITION OF POETRY. 

respects the other man. 3. God said, Let there be light, and there was 
light. — God said, do thou let there light to be, and there was light. 4. The 
book is worth a dollar. — The book is of the worth of a dollar ; or, the 
book is a dollar's worth. 5. John is like his brother, but unlike his cousin. 
— John is like unto his brother, but unlike unto his cousin. 6. James, 
John, Henry, and Seth, attend the same school ; and all but Seth make 
great proficiency in grammar, geography, and arithmetic. — Ail of them 
make great proficiency in grammar, geography, and arithmetic ; but 
Seth [one of them] does not make great proficiency in grammar, geogra- 
phy, and arithmetic. 7. All of William's family but his wife, are in good 
health. — All of William's family are in good health ; but his wife is not 
in good health. 8. We should detest vice, yet pity, and seek to relieve its 
deluded victims. Why, sir ? — Should we detest vice ; but pity, and seek 
to relieve its deluded victims. Why, sir, should we detest vice, but pity, 
and seek to relieve its deluded victims ? 9. Though John can not, in eight 
days, go to Utica, thence to Buffalo, thence to Pittsburg, and return by 
way of Philadelphia ; yet Henry can. — -Though John can not, in eight 
days, go to Utica, thence to Buffalo, thence to Pittsburg, and return by 
the way of Philadelphia ; yet Henry can, in eight days, go to Utica, 
thence to Buffalo, thence to Plattsburg, and return by the way of Phila- 
delphia. ! ! 

TRANSPOSITION OF POETRY. 

EXAMFLES. 

Lorenzo : pride repress ; nor hope to find 

A friend, but what has found a friend in thee. Young, 

This sentence needs only one change — putting repress immediately 
after the word on which it depends, and before the word depending on 
that. Thus : Lorenzo ; repress pride ; nor hope to find a friend, but 
what has found a friend in thee. Yet see Kirkham, and the other writers. 
(K's gram, page 169.) 

J-iorenzo ; repress thou pride ; nor hope thou to find a friend, only in 
him who has already found a friend in thee. K. : what has become of the 
what, and all of the beauty, dignity, and form of the sentence ! Gone ! 
The giammatical wand ! has been waved over the sentence ; and, at 
once, the fertile blooming valley has become a dreary waste. 

"Who noble ends, by noble means, obtains, 
Or failing, smiles an exile or in chains ; 
Like good Aurelius let him reign, or bleed 
Like Socrates, that man is great indeed." 

This, transposed, as on page 229 of this work, stands : The man is 
great indeed who obtains noble ends by noble means ; or failing, smiles 
in exile or in chains : let him reign like good Aurelius, or bleed like So- 
crates. [Now see the old grammar's transformations of it ; K. page 169, 
and his remarks on the imperative mood's nominative, page 163] 

" That man is great indeed, do thou let him to reign like unto good Au- 
relius, or do thou let him to bleed like unto Socrates, who obtains noble 



TRANSPOSITION OF POETRY. 377 

ends by noble means ;* or that man is great indeed, who, failing to ob- 
tain noble ends by noble means, smiles in exile or in chains." 

Oh Happiness, our being's end, and aim, 
Good, pleasure, ease, content, what.e'er thy name ; 
Thatf something still which prompts the eternal sigh, 
For which we bear to live, or dare to die, 
Which still so near us, yet beyond us lies, 
O'erlooked, seen double by the fool and wise, 
Plant of celestial seed ; if dropped below, 
Say, in what mortal soil thou deign'st to grow. 

This sentence, so perfect in every respect but the matters noticed in 
the note at the bottom of the page, must, to be grammatical according to 
the old theories, [see K's grammar ! page 164.] stand thus : [I give 
only the first four lines, which are quite enough.] 

" Oh, happiness, our being's end and aim! Whether thou art good, or 
whether thou art pleasure, or whether thou art ease, or whether thou art 
content, thou art that, thou art which, be thy name that thing, which- 
ever thing it may be, thou art still that something, which prompts the 
eternal sigh, for which we bear to live, or dare to die." 

Here then, we have the grammatical ! construction of the above elegant 
and sublime sentence. As the sentence stands, it is perfectly plain, but 
after it is transposed !! I defy the world to explain what the transposition 
means ; though Kirkham says to the pupil, " in order to come at the 
meaning of the author, you will find it necessary to transpose the words 
of the poetic sentence, and supply what is understood !" as though this 
transposition ! would improve the sentence with respect to perspicuity — ■ 
would make it clearer in this worse than clownish style, than it was be- 
fore transposition ! I leave this part, simply remarking that — If, with 
a limited knowledge of grammar, people speak and write as ungramma- 
tically as they do, how inconceivably and disgustingly bad must be their 
diction, when they shall have become as well versed in the science as the 
old theorists — when " the disciple shall have equalled his master" — shall 
have been enabled to speak and write with all the fullness } and purity , 
and propriety that the old grammars dictate I 

N. B. The miscellaneous exercises in Syntactical correction are necessarily 
excluded by this discussion. I must say by way of explanation and apology, 
" The old theorists would have it so." As exercises are interspersed through- 
out the book, this investigation will be of more service to the learner, than 
abstract syntactical corrections. Besides, the first step towards exhibiting 
truth should be removing the veil of error. The Constitution of the United 
States, is also crowded out of this edition. 

* This would represent Socrates, not the character referred to, as being 
the one that obtains noble ends by noble means. 

f The use of the word that, in the place of the, and the contraction of what- 
ever and overlooked, are the only things to be corrected in form, principle, or 
place ; as, in every other respect, the sentence stands, perfect poetry, in per- 
fect prosaic order. 

33* 



378 CONCLUSION. 



CONCLUSION. 

Here let me ask, have I, or have I not, exhibited plainly and fairly, 
errors enough in the old theories to convince any man, that they have 
no claim to the office, of representatives of the language ; that the lan- 
guage, to be grammatical according to those works, must be far worse 
than the most unlearned ever use ; that the best language, the purest, 
loftiest, and most elegant diction, when measured by the barbarous rules, 
and teachings of their pretended grammars, is thrown into the most 
inelegant form or style ; — that in the choice of terms to represent their 
parts of speech and subdivisions, they are even in a classical application 
of those terms, most strangely absurd, an-5 to an English student quite 
ridiculous ? Is this not showing, that the old books are neither English 
grammars, or grammars, in any sense of the English Language? 

I ask, also, would not pupils have become far more practically ac- 
quainted with the language, in one-fourth of the time usually spent at 
(not in) grammar ; if, without any aid from theories, they had, with the 
same teachers, exercised their judgment only, on works written in the 
English Language ; in discriminating with respect to what is, and what 
is not good language ; full, and perspicuous, and graceful diction? If 
this is fact, [and who I ask can doubt it] have not the old theories been 
worse than nothing ; engaging the attention of the learner, and keeping 
him studying books that never represented the language, instead of 
studying the language itself, like keeping a person studying defective 
and erroneous systems of geography instead of traveling and surveying, 
in person, the countries which those books profess to describe 1 If this 
too is fact (and who can doubt it 1) and-if the foregoing treatise is a 
philosophical representation, not of what the language has been or ever 
was, but of what it is : if it does exhibit by proper names as the readiest 
means, the principles ; and by proper rules the structure of the English 
Language, in its own beauty, its fullness and dignified simplicity, then 
ask yourself, reader ; is this the first or the Zas^'grammar of the English 
Language that has,^to your knowledge, been presented to the world? and 
may I not humbly hope to prove in this department of science, 

" The Mind's deliverer, who from the gloom 
Of cloistered monks avid jargon-teaching schools 
Led forth the true Philosophy, there long 
Held in the magic chain of words and forums 
And definitions void 1 ! /" 

With respect to the distinctive terms used in the old theories ; let it 
be remembered that I reject them, not because they are derived from the 
Latin Language ; but because they have never been fully naturalized 
in the English — because to the English student, they are senseless; 
having, either no application to any thing else, or when applied, having 
a meaning very different from that which their grammatical application 
forces them to represent, and consequently requiring more time to learn 



CONCLUSION. 379 

the meaning of names than is requisite, with proper names, to become 
acquainted with the principles ; while the terms chosen in this work, 
come into the grammar, full of meaning, and ready to assist (not to perplex) 
the learner in distinguishing ideas. Thus, as a single illustration ; for 
plu — perfect, which to the English student is a blank term and to the 
Latinist an absurd one ; I have the term prior-past, both parts of which 
[prior and past] have the same meaning in grammar, that they have any 
where else ; so that, when I explain them in their grammatical applica- 
tion, I explain them in every other place in which they can be used ; and 
thus, while the old terms are barriers in the learner's pathway, mine are 

INITIATORY MEANS TO FALICITATE HIS ADVANCEMENT. 

To me there is no doubt, that the old theories have been preventives of 
grammar, instead of inductive aids — otherwise, the study of what is so 
completely interwoven with the pleasures of social intercourse, and the 
benefits of public enterprise, could not have been so unwelcome, so un- 
interesting and useless. They have only amused (a sorry amusement 
this,) the public with a deformed shadow, instead of exhibiting the 
beautiful and grand reality : or, rather, they have bidden the Angel of 
Light, in the garb of a Monster — have made English Grammar the 
sarcophagus of the Language : and now they claim the admiration and 
gratitude of mankind for having succeeded in befooling them so long. 

Yet, however I may regard the theory of Murray, in the light of fact, 
philosophy, and logic, for Murray, himself, who as a modest compiler, with 
every disadvantage, labored long with the most benevolent intentions, 
desiring to bring into form and life what had been but chaos, I have much 
respect : and though his theory, having proved erroneous and defective, 
should not from our regard for him, be made the means of injury 
to coming ages, and though for the public good, I expose the errors of his 
work, yet with the utmost sincerity I say of him 

Peace to his memory — 

Be honor bright with blessing on his name. 

Though while he rests from his labors among the illustrious dead ; 

" Who long had sought to instruct and please mankind." 

It shall be my endeavor to have his works follow him soon ; yet, I 
must, at the same time express (what I can not conceal) my contempt for 
the works of other writers [including those mentioned in this work] 
who, having drawn from Murray the principles that preserve their works 
from putrefaction, and interlarded them with original unparalleled non- 
sense and absurdity, (for the purpose of appearing as original geniuses) 
have the ingratitude and effrontery to decry the author, of most of the 
few acceptable traits exhibited in their own theories. 

Some, who have more gravity than science, will, without ceremony, 
condemn the style of this appendix from the fact, that I have shown much 
confidence in myself, and little respect for the works of others. I am 
ready to admit that I have some confidence in myself; that I know my 
strength, (however little it may be) and am prepared to show it in act ; 
that I have too much regard for philosophy, to treat with marked deifer- 
ence and respect, what I find myself capable of exposing as a??/i-gram- 
matical and false ; as superficial and absurd. 



380 CONCLUSION. 

I hope (and, for personal debate, this is my challenge to the old theo- 
rists, their friends and abettors in the United States and the United 
Kingdom) that the different members of the grammar corps, will 
at length join in one promiscuous fight, each man's hand being di- 
rected against every man's work, and every man's hand against 
his ; till, by the scintillations occasioned by thrust and parry, and thrust 
returned, a light shall be made to shine, and the community, at our ex- 
pense, shall become wise ; till the old shield of " Established Usage," 
behind which many have imagined themselves secure, shall be trans, 
fixed with the shafts of truth, and rendered a dangerous defence ; till 
the "iron mask" which has so long obscured the fair face, and genuine ex- 
cellence of the English Language, shall be dashed to the ground — and, 

The lovely Stranger shall stand confessed, 
In beauties freshest charms. 

I have written this work, not for the vexation of some old proser, who, 
finding himself blink- eyed from the effects of the glare of science, out- 
shining the lurid twilight of the morn that gave him birth ; and, wishing 
in his dotage, to avoid the disgrace of his own indolence and stupidity, 
is already beginning to pray Jupiter to extinguish the sun, 

And bless, with total night, the world and him. 

I have written it for the benefit of those who are able to see, and having 
seen, to appreciate ; for the aid of both teacher and pupil ; the middle 
aged and the young ; and though, adopting the maxim of Pope, to 

" Laugh where I must, be candid where I can," 

I have, occasionally, passed 

*' From grave to gay, from lively to severe ;" 

yet, I have aimed, in this very appendix to exemplify the only proper use 
of raillery ; as, I have endeavored, first, by philosophy and logic, to ex- 
pose the old absurdities, and then, to spurn with ridicule, what by reason, 
I had shown ridiculous ; and though, amid candor I have jested ; even 
in jest, I am sincere. 

Many, who shall become convinced, will refuse to act ; saying, that 
" although these things are so, yet the total change with which the adop- 
tion of this work will necessarily be attended, will cause perplexity ; — 
that the old theories have stood for ages, (they have stood too long, and 
Gone too much injury already ;) and may as well continue in use." 

This is too weak to be met with argument. So mused and wrangled 
the opposers of *' Him, who taught as never man had taught ;" whose 
principles have ushered in the dawn of an eternal day ; whose precepts 
breathe universal Love, Benevolence, and Peace. So contended the ac- 
cusers of Gallileo, who, to save his life, confessed the fallacy of the 
Copernicum system, and acknowledged that the earth is a boundless, 
moveless plain ; but consoled himself still with the thought that it is 
a rotary globe, and that human laws and human bigotry can not success- 
fully oppose fact and philosophy ; and with contemplating the mighty 
improvements which the system would, in after times, originate. 



CONCLUSION. 381 

So prated the contemners of Harvey, who was ruined by having been 
the first to discover and to teach the immutable laws, which control the 
circulation of the blood. So might have said the unphilosophic herd 
that ridiculed the theory of Franklin, " the dupe of his own imagina- 
tion:" the effect of whose " fantasy" has been to render playful and harm- 
less as the frisky lamb, the thunder-bolts of God. 

So said (and while they pitied, laughed;) the neighbors of the death- 
less Fulton. "The weak projector of a self-moving boat!" Yet 
the workings of his almost God-like mind, brought into active being, prin- 
ples, whose ever varying use must soon unite, in close and prosperous 
communion, the farthest regions of the globe; bearing to Earth's remotest 
bound, OURS, the more than Roman Language, that, (not by arms,) is 
distined to prove, in Civilization and Refinement, in Commerce, in 
Mind and Morals, by Science, prompting Art, the great Regenera- 
tor of the World : and shall this Patron of mankind, bear with bless- 
ings to our race, 

" To lands unknown, and worlds beyond the deep," 

The garb of his former servitude, the shackles of tyrants, long since 
dead, whose dominion, he has laid under tribute 1 or shall he go forth, 

" f nobler shape, erect and tall, 

With Native honor clad, 

In God-like majesty, as lord of alii" 

When, in the history of mankind, has it been known that any great 
improvement was made in Science, Religion or Arts, without bringing 
upon the head of its originator, the burning malice and fury, or the scorn 
and derision of the bigot herd? When has it been known, that he, who 
having light, dared, by that light, to expose the follies, errors, and vices 
of his day, has not been denounced as an impostor, or a fanatic ; as a 
disturber of the public quiet ; a turner of the world upside down ; and 
shall I, 

"-Who would the obstructed path of science clear," 

Who declare a war of extermination against the popular scholastic jar- 
gon, (the mock of science); the absurd dogmas of this and a former age ; 
expect to avoid the storm that I create 1 the shock of ignorance, of envy, 
and interest combined'! Shall I, frail and weak as I know myself to be, 
expect to escape what others have endured 1 

I had wished to avoid the controversy, but was forced to believe, that, 
as an invalid must be convinced of his sickness, before he will consent to 
be cured, so it would be impossible to induce people to receive a new 
theory, however important its advantages, without first pointing out the 
defects of the old. " The Rubicon is crossed ;" my armor girded on. I 
court the tempest's breath ; the battle's fiercest rage. I conquer but to 
aid. . For this end, (not from vain ambition,) I bare my bosom to the 
strife, trusting that the blade of Truth, directed by Reason, will be as 
Eden's flaming sword to guard the avenues to my heart, 



382 CONCLUSION. 

I have joined the crusade against the dominions of Error, Prejudice, 
and Bigotry ; and commenced the attack in the " Science of Language ;" 
hoping to win that as the citadel or central post, the fort, or vantage- 
ground, from which to direct ulterior operations. To the advancement 
of the contest, I dedicate, with my limited capacity, the time which Pro- 
vidence shall allot me here ; and though I may not live to witness the 
conclusion of the strife ; to see the fogs of sophistry, the clouds of intel- 
lectual and moral darkness, dispersed, by the irradiating beams of truth 
and reason ; yet, the assurance of its ultimately successful termination, 
will invigorate my mind, and stimulate me to activity. It is this, that, 
while I approach the meridian of my days, shall nerve my feeble arm, 
shall render ten-fold more effective my humble efforts for the public good; 
and heighten the noon-tide fervor of my devotion to the interests of man- 
kind : it is this that shall prove the unfading star of hope, to light the 
evening of my life's decline ; to dispel the loneliness of decay ; and 
cheer my downward pathway to the tomb : that shall plant, with opening 
flowers of richest fragrance, my couch of death ; and shed a mild hal- 
lowed radiance over the mouldering pillow of my last repose. 

f£j* Reader : whoever and whatever you may be ; you have seen the 
whole. I have led you through the fortresses of the enemy. I have 
shown you what they are, and what are the resources on both sides for 
opening the campaign. Are you convinced of the necessity of reform ? 
Do you believe that fact and philosophy, wielded by science, as the 
thunderbolts of Heaven for the demolition of Error, are omnipotent, and 
can not be withstood 1 Will you then mingle in the thickening strife, 
and stake your influence here ] Or will you, in full conviction of the ne- 
cessity and feasibility of the enterprise, look coldly on, or stand aloof? 
believing that God, in vain, '* breathed into man the breath of life :" and 
lhat, without design, He said, " Let there be light !" 



THE END OF THIS WORK : 
MAY IT COME, WHEN 4- BETTER THEORY CAN SUCCEED IT. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Language, 



Address to teachers, Page 11 

Address to the learners, " 13 

The Grammar of the English Language — 



Part of speech defined, 

Sex, 
Person, 
Number, 
Case, t ♦ 

Simple Substitutes, 
Common " 
Adname " 

Interrogative " 

Mode, 

Tense, 

Other forms, 

Inflections, 

Irregular Asserters, table of 

Qualifying Adnames, 
Declension of " 
Plate HI— " . 
Specifying " 

Interrogative " 



Page 15 | Grammar, 
Orthography, 
Etymology, 

. 20 | Exercises in general parsing, 
k Names, 

31 | Declension of Names, 
Plate I — Case, . 
Plate II — Case, 
Exercises in parsing, 
Substitutes. 

61 | Connective Substitutes, 
Substitute phrase, 
Exercises in parsing, 
Two-fold Case, 



34 
34 

42 



61 j 
63 I 
64 



Asserters, 



79 

81 

83 

85 
11? 
Adnames. 



Rules for the use of Auxiliaries, 
Rules for the formation of princi- 
pal Asserters, 
Defective Asserters, 
Exercises in parsing, 



Exclamatory Adname, 
Negative, " 

Assertive, " 

Modifying, " 

Exercises in parsing, 



. 136 

137 
. 140 

141 
. 144 
Modifiers, 
Relatives, 
Connectives, 
Interrogatives, 
Repliers, 
Exclamations, 
Derivation of words, 
Syntax, 

Remarks on Parsing, 
Analytical Rules, 
Transposition — rules for, 

" Exercises in, 

Synthetical Rules, 
Synonyms, 
Prefixes, 
Suffixes, 
Prosody, 
Rhetoric, 
Address to the Student, 



16 
17 
20 
22 
29 
45 
30 
52 
54 
61 
65 
69 
69 
70 
77 
121 

125 
130 
131 
136 
144 
144 
145 
145 
145 
151 
157 
170 
179 
182 
183 
184 
189 
192 
195 
223 
226 
248 
264 
273 
275 
277 
288 
307 



384 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



APPENDIX. 





Lecture I, 


309 


Names or Nouns, . 


309 


Number, 


314 


Gender, .... 


. 310 


Case, . . 


315 


Person, .... 


312 


Possessive Case, 


318 




Lecture If. 




Substitutes — Pronouns, 


320 1 Possessive Case of Personal 




Distinctions of '• 


. 321 J Pronouns, 


334 


Compound Relatives, . 


325 | Conclusion of the Pronoun, 


335 


As — a Relative Pronoun, 


. 329 1 
Lecture III. 




Asserters or Verbs, 


329 1 Mode, *..""'. 


346 


Participles, 


. 341 1 Defective Verbs, 


359 


Different kinds of Asserters, 


342 | Tense, 

Lecture IV. 


359 


Adnames or Adjectives and Articles, 


368 




Lecture V. 




Modifiers — Adverbs, 


Lecture VI. 


371 


Relatives or Prepositions, and 


other parts of speech, 


372 


Connectives — Conjunctions, 


373 1 Exclamations — Interjections, 


375 


Interrogatives and Repliers, 


374 1 Transposition of Poetry, 


376 




Conclusion. 


378 



ERRORS. 



s 11, 3d line from the bottom, after wished, read them. 
43, 13th line from the top, for after read of. 
53, 8th line from the top, for express in, read expressing. 
73, 3d line from the bottom, one should be printed in Roman letters, 
101, 3d, 4th and 5th line from the top, for were, read are. 
138, 9th line from the bottom, for Name, read Adname t 
157, Lesson XII, for wrapt, read rapt. 

197, 8th line from the top, after to keep, read it holy. 

198, Rule IV, after given, read in. 

199, for the correction of Rule Vll see Rule 7th of the «hari, 
201, in Rule XII omit the last may. 

208, 5th line of the 2d note, for need, read needs. 
287, 12th line from the bottom, for sink, read fade. 
292, 10th line from the top, for negative, read negation. 
329, 16 line from the bottom, for — , read 175. 



